Skibidi Unit 2
UNIT 2 | |
(Chap 17) | |
Nomadic Turks : | Turkish settlement started out with clans and tribes. Nomatic, lived off of animals. Eager to trade with settled societies for immediate goods. Commoners - Elites : The leaders passed elite status along to their heirs but they could lose status if they did not continue to provide appropriate leadership for clans, elites could return to commoners who followed new leaders and commoners could win recognition as elites by outstating conduct, for example courageous behavior during war and gain support to displace established leaders. Role of women : Women enjoyed much higher status than their counterparts in settled agricultural societies. Primarily responsible for tending to animals and excelled at horse riding and archery and even sometimes fought alongside men in war. Had considerable influence in nomadic societies. Spiritual Religious : Believe in Shaman, They also became attracted to religious and cultural traditions they encountered when trading with people of settled societies. |
Yurts : | Large tents made from wool in which Turkish nomads lived. |
Turkshis conversion to islam : | The earliest converts were Turkish nomads captured in border raids by Abbasid forces and integrated into the army as slave soldiers. The first large-scale conversion was in the late tenth century when a Turkish ruling clan known as the Liquid turned to islam and migrated to Iran in hopes of improving their fortunes through alliance with Abbasid authorities and service to the caliphate. Most Turkish clans on the steppes of central asia also adopted islam and carried the religion with them when they expanded their political and military influence to new regions. |
Turkish warriors advantages/reasons for spread : | They had enormous military power because of outstanding cavalry forces and experience with horses as children and superior equestrian skills and archery skills. They also had amazing coordination and overwhelmed their opponents. Turkish tribes were motivated to expand primarily due to their nomadic lifestyle, strong military traditions, the lure of plunder and wealth from conquered lands, the spread of Islam as a unifying force, and the desire to establish political power in new territories. They took over much of central asia and parts of north india. |
Shaman: | Earliest religion of the Turkish peoples, religious specialists who possessed supernatural powers, communicated with the gods and nature spirits and invoked divine aid on behalf of their communities and informed companions of God's will. |
Khan: | The title of Khan is a Turkic title that means "ruler" or "commander". It originated with nomadic tribes in the Central and Eastern Eurasian Steppe. Nomadic leaders organized confederations of people of all subjects during military expansion. |
Seljuk Turks: | Nomadic Turkic tribe that established a powerful empire across large parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to the 13th centuries Takeover over Abbasids : Turkish people entered Persia, Anatolia and India at different times and approached Abbasid Persia. Turkish people lived off the borders of the Abbasid realm with lots of opportunities for trade. After large numbers of seljuk turks served in abbasid armies and in the realm they overshadowed the abbasid caliphs, and the caliphs recognized the seljuk leader as sultan or ruler. Tughril strengthened his hold on Bagdad and extended Turkish rule further. The caliphs still served as figureheads of authority while actual governance and power lied in the hands of Turkish Sultans Takeover over Anatolia : Turks began migrating to Antolia in large numbers and inflicted decesting defeat on the Byzantine army at Manzikert and took their emperor captive. After this capture they entered Anatolia almost at will and the peasants of Byzantine looked upon the Seluqs as liberators rather than conquerors. Turkish groups displaced Byzantine authorities and set up their own institutions and welcomed islam. |
Sultan: | “Chieftain” or “Ruler” The abbasid caliph recognized Seljuq leader Tughril Beg as sultan. |
Mahmud of Ghazni : | Mahmud of Ghazni was a Turkish ruler and the founder of the Ghaznavid Empire (971–1186 CE), known for his military campaigns in the Indian subcontinent and his patronage of culture and the arts, particularly promoting Persian literature. |
The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): | Mahmud of GHazni led the Ghaznavid Turks of Afghanistan in raids on northern india. They became increasingly interested in permanent rule and asserted authority over the Punjab then Gujarat and bengal. They established the Turkish sultanate of Delhi and claimed authority over all of northern india. They wanted to extend to southern India and extend muslim rule but did not succeed because hindu resistance and constantly protecting the northern frontier from new Turkish and Mongol invaders. -Built mosques and fortresses throughout their empire -Their control was mostly just in Delhi -Depended on Hindu kings to carry out their orders -The Delhi Sultanate is significant because it helped to spread Islamic culture and establish Islam in the Bengal region of India |
Mongols | Vast empire, originally nomadic tribes united by Chinggis, known for their highly organized and efficient military campaigns and skills with horses and archery, which enabled them to conquer and control vast territories. As skilled horsemen and traders, they played a significant role in spreading ideas, technologies, and cultural practices throughout the regions they controlled. |
Chinggis Khan | Conqueror, not administrator, founder of the Mongol Empire which he ruled from 1206 until his death in 1227. Born Temujin, he acquired the title of Genghis Khan, likely meaning 'universal ruler', after unifying the Mongol tribes.Sep 16, 2019 |
Temujin/Chinggis/Genghis Upbringing | Unifier of the Mongols, original name of Genghis Khan, born in 1167 to a noble family. Father was a warrior who forged Mongol alliances but was poisoned and destroyed the alliance. Lived in poverty with no help. Genghis grew up hunting and foraging to survive, and as an adolescent he may have even murdered his own half-brother in a dispute over food. During his teenage years, rival clans abducted both he and his young wife, and Genghis spent time as a slave before making a daring escape. |
Rise to power : | He made an alliance with a mongol clan leader and mastered the art of diplomacy. He strengthened his position by forging alliances and conquering rivals and troublesome allies. He eventually brought all mongol tribes into a single confederation and in 1206 mongol leaders recognized Temujin’s supremacy by proclaiming him Chinggis Khan which means “universal ruler” |
Mongol takeover of China | Mongol raiding parties invaded the Jurchen relearn which controlled northern china. The raids became more frequent and intense and turned into conquest. By 1215 the Mongols captured the Jurchen capital and served as the Mongol capital in china. Established control over northern china. |
Mongol conquest of Persia | They wanted to work together with the successor to the seljuks known as the Khwarazm shah but they slaughtered Chinggis Khan’s envoys and officials. Khan then took his army west and pushed Khwarazm shah into an island in the caspian sea where he died and took control of his realm. To destroy Shah's influence the Mongols destroyed and ravaged cities and massacred people, as well as irrigation and agriculture. |
4 empires after Genghis khan’s death : | After Genghis Khan died in 1227, the Mongol Empire was divided into four khanates, or empires, each with its own interests and objectives: Golden Horde: In the northwest, led by Batu Khan Chagatai Khanate: In Central Asia Ilkhanate: In the southwest, in Iran and Persia Yuan Dynasty: In China, based in modern-day Beijing The great khans ruled China the wealthiest lands, Descendants of chagatai who was one of Khan’s sons ruled the khanate of chagatai in central asia. Persian was under the authority of the Ilkhans and the khans of the golden horde dominated Russia. Lots of tension and conflict before the four khans. |
Kublai Khan | Chinggis Khan’s grandson, most talented, unleashed ruthless attacks against enemies, cared about cultural matters and welfare, promoted buddhism and support for other religions. Generous towards the poor and efforts to build roads. |
Yuan Dynasty | The dynasty that was empowered by Khubilai which took over China after the conquest of the Song dynasty by Mongol forces. |
Kamikaze | Plans were thwarted by typhoons, destroying many Mongol vessels and troops. The term kamikaze refers to the two typhoons that saved Japan from Mongol invaders in 1274 and 1281, and literally translates to "divine wind”. |
Golden Horde | A Mongol Khanate that controlled large parts of Eastern Europe and Russia during the 13th and 14th centuries. Overran Russia and mounted exploratory expeditions. Maintained a large army on the steppes which they mounted raids into Russia, did not occupy Russia but extracted tribute from Russian cities and agricultural provinces. |
Persian Ilkhanate | A Mongol state established in the 13th century that ruled over Persia and parts of the Middle East. It was one of the four major divisions of the Mongol Empire, created after the empire's fragmentation following the death of Genghis Khan. |
Sack of Baghdad | Empire was topped by Khubilai’s brother Huelgu and established the Mongol Ilkhanate. The city was looted, the caliph was executed and two hundred thousand residents were massacred. |
Mongols and religion : | Tolerated all religions and they ended the privileges given muslims during the Abbasid caliph. Gradually went towards Islam. Most of the Persian Mongols converted to Islam and this sparked large scale massacres of christians and jews. Buddhism : Made a prominent place for magic and supernatural powers which resembled mongols shamanism They recognized Mongols as legit rulers. Appealed to mongol ruling elites, seen as incarnations of the Buddha. |
View of chinese : | The mongol overlords stood aloof from their subjects whom they scorned as mere cultivators. Outlawed inter-marrige and forbade learning of language, wanted to exterminate chinese people. |
Impact on Eurasia : | Sponsored interaction among people of different species and linked Eurasian lands more directly than ever before. Facilitated trade, diplomatic travel, missionary efforts and movement of people into new lands. Courier networks : Recognizing the value of regular communications for the empire, Chinggis Khan and his successors maintained a courier network that rapidly relayed news, information and government orders. This network included relay stations with fresh horses and riders so messages could travel nonstop through the empire. |
Nestorian Christianity | Christianity spread during the time of the Mongols. Eurasian routes during the Mongol empire served as highways for missionaries and merchants and diplomats. Sufi’s helped popularize islam and lamaist buddhism from tibet attracted interest from the mongols. Christians found opportunities throughout central asia and won converts when they went to china to serve as administrators for mongol rulers. Roman catholics also mounted missionary campaigns in china. |
Uighurs | They were valued because they were literate and often highly educated and provided not only many of the clerks, secretaries and administrators but also the units of soldiers who bolstered Mongol garrisons. Turkish group. |
Mongol downfall | They needed to become governors as well as conquerors but they had no experience administering complex societies and could not adjust to administrators. Decline in persia : Excessive spending and overexploitation of the peasantry led to reduced revenues. Regime went into steep decline, Ilkhan Ghazan died, without an heir the ilkhanate simply collapsed and Persia devolved to local levels. Decline in Yuan : Economic dimensions, did not maintain adequate reserves of paper notes, lost confidence in paper money and prices rose. Imperial assassinations and civil war occured Rebellions from subjects and banditry. Rebels captured Khanbaliq and Mongols departed China and returned to the steppes. Bubonic Plague : Mongols unwittingly expedited the spread of the bubonic plague by facilitating trade and communication throughout Eurasia. Spread throughout china, labor shortages, distributed economies, wicked mongol empire. |
Lasting effects of mongols : | They dominated the caucuses and steppe lands of the black sea and caspian sea until the mid 16th century, had considerable influence in northern china and russia and crimea. Facilitate all the connections of trade and connections in this unit. |
Power vacuum in china : | Mongol empire collapsed, The native ming dynasty filled the vacuum in china |
Tamerlane: | Upbringing : Self made Turkish Mongol conqueror named Timur he moved on persia to fill the power vacuum, he walked with a limp so he was called timur the lame and stuck in english as tamerlane. Turkish people resumed the expansive campaigns that the Mongols had interrupted. The turkic Mongol conqueror Tamerlane built a central asian empire rivaling that of Chinggis Khan himself. Deeply influenced by three surviving errors even after the collapse of empire after his death, Munghal empire in India, Safavid empire in persia, Ottoman empire based in Anatolia. Conquest : He turned toward persia and afghanistan and established authority in the rich cities so he could levy taxes on trade and agriculture. He attacked the golden horde in the Caucasus region and Russia and weakened them. He also invaded India and subjected Delhi to a ferocious sack. Additional campaigns in southwest Asia and Antolia. Prepared for an invasion of China until he fell ill and died in 1405. Governing policies : He was a conqueror not a governor like Chinggis Khan. He spent entire adult life planning and fighting military campaigns and did not create imperial administration but rather ruled through tribal leaders who were his allies. He appointed overlords in territories he took but they relied on existing bureaucratic structures and simply received taxes and tribute. |
Osman: | Founder of the Ottoman Empire. Carved a small state for himself in northwestern anatolia. He declared independence from the seljuq sultan and launched a campaign to build a state at the expense of the Byzantine empire. His followers were known as Osmanlis or Ottomans. Many Byzantines supported the Ottomans because of political fragmentation, ineffective government and exploitation of the peasantry. |
Ottomans: | Followers of Osman. Long-lasting Islamic empire that spanned across parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, primarily known for its conquest of Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453 |
Capture of Constantinople: | Sultan Mehmed II captured the city of Constantinople thus ending more than a thousand years of Byzantine rule. Made the city his own capital under the Turkish name of Istanbul. Quickly after this the Ottomans absorbed the remainder of the Byzantine empire. |
Mehmed II: | "Mehmed the Conqueror," was a prominent Ottoman Sultan who is most famous for conquering Constantinople in 1453, effectively ending the Byzantine Empire and significantly expanding the Ottoman Empire's territory across the Balkans and Anatolia; his reign marked a pivotal moment in world history, solidifying Ottoman dominance in the region |
Chap 18 | https://knowt.com/flashcards/ced435d3-5cdf-4565-ba24-b728511c14e7 |
Social Hierarchy in Africa : | Clearly defined classes. Ruling elites, military nobles, administrative officials, religious authorities, wealthy merchants, artisans, common people. |
Gender Roles : | Workers with special skills were mostly men. Iron working, blacksmiths, Leather tanning. Public authority. Women generally did domestic chores and child bearing but had more opportunities open to them than in other lands, enamored high honor as the sources of life, and made way to positions of power. |
Age Grades : | Age grades were age groups that included all individuals within a community born within a few years of one another. Members in groups established social ties and developed and formed right circles of friends and political allies. |
Zanj/Revolut | The Zanj refers to black slaves from the swahili coast, and the Zanj revolt was a lengthy slave uprising. The Zanj Rebellion was a major revolt against the Abbasid Caliphate, which took place from 869 until 883. Demonstrated that african slavery was a prominent feature in muslim society |
Benin | A kingdom in West Africa that was part of the trans-Saharan trade and also got its wealth and power from it. Ruled by kings. |
Caliphate | A political-religious state led by a caliph, who is considered a successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. |
Camels | Enabling trans-saharan trade, they were the primary mode of transportation across the Sahara Desert. |
Axum | A powerful kingdom in ancient Africa, near modern-day Ethiopia. Trading nation, exports. |
Bantu peoples | A group of African ethnicities originating from West Central Africa who migrated across Sub-Saharan Africa. recognized for their significant "Bantu Migration," a large-scale movement across sub-Saharan Africa originating in West Central Africa, where they spread their language, agricultural practices, and ironworking technology, significantly impacting the cultural landscape of the continent throughout centuries; this migration is considered one of the most important demographic shifts in early human history |
Gold trade | Also called the "Trans-Saharan Gold Trade" a major trade network across the Sahara Desert where gold from West African regions like modern-day Mali and Ghana was exchanged for salt from the Sahara, creating a key economic exchange between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean world during the Middle Ages. Very reliant on camels. |
Griots | West African storytellers, musicians, and oral historians who traditionally preserved and passed down their community's history, genealogies, and important events through songs and spoken narratives. Keepers of culture. |
Great Zimbabwe | A medieval African city that served as the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe. Located at the crossroad of trading routes, known for its impressive stone structures and wealth accumulated through trade in gold and ivory. |
Ife | Ancient and naturalistic bronze, stone and terracotta sculptures |
Islamic slave trade | Large-scale slave trade that existed within the Islamic world, primarily across the trans-Saharan trade routes, where slaves were transported from sub-Saharan Africa to North Africa and the Middle East by Arab traders, spanning centuries and impacting the demographics of regions significantly. Often captured in war, prisoners of war. |
Jenne-jeno | An ancient city located in modern-day Mali, West Africa, considered one of the oldest urban centers in Sub-Saharan Africa, known for its significant role in trans-Saharan trade |
Kebra Nagast | A 14th-century Ethiopian text considered the national epic of Ethiopia, which details the lineage of Ethiopian monarchs tracing their ancestry directly back to King Solomon of the Bible and the Queen of Sheba, essentially legitimizing the Solomonic dynasty by claiming their descent from this biblical couple. Claimed rule fit by god. |
Kilwa | Islamic city state. Kilwa became an important trade center based on location; it became one of the most active commercial centers on the east coast of Africa. |
Kin-based societies | Social structures where power and authority are primarily based on family lineage and kinship ties. This system was particularly prevalent in pre-colonial sub-Saharan Africa, where communities were organized around family groups and decision-making was done through councils of elders from prominent families |
Kingdom of Ghana | A powerful West African empire that existed from 830–1235 CE. major player in the trans-Saharan trade network, primarily known for its gold trade, which allowed it to flourish as a powerful state in West Africa during the period roughly from the 8th to the 13th centuries. The rise of new trade routes and the growing power of other West African kingdoms, such as Mali, eventually led to the decline of Ghana. |
Kingdom of Kongo | A powerful centralized state located on the west coast of central Africa, which emerged around the 14th century and became significantly impacted by the arrival of Portuguese traders in the late 15th century. Extensive trade in goods like ivory and slaves, while also introducing Christianity to the region. |
Koumbi-Saleh | A hub for the exchange of gold, iron, salt, ivory, and other commodities |
Mali Empire | Powerful West African state during the period of 1200-1450, renowned for its vast wealth from gold trade, its flourishing commercial network along the Trans-Saharan trade routes, and the spread of Islam throughout the region, particularly associated with the famous ruler Mansa Musa. Converting to islam folded the state into the exceedingly popular merchant network through dar al islam, grew rich through gold trade and merchant taxing of merchants through west africa |
Mansa Musa | Ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa, famous for his immense wealth derived from gold trade, and most notably for his lavish pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, where he displayed such a large amount of gold that it temporarily devalued the metal in the regions he traveled through; his journey significantly increased awareness of the Mali Empire on the global stage and promoted Islamic influence in the region. |
Sundiata | Founder of the Mali Empire in West Africa, considered a pivotal figure in the 13th century for establishing a powerful and wealthy African state through unifying various Malinke tribes; his story is largely preserved through oral tradition, particularly the "Epic of Sundiata." |
Swahili | A group of independent city-states located on the East African coast, known for their maritime trade and a unique language (also called Swahili) which blends elements of Bantu languages with Arabic, developed as a result of extensive interaction with merchants from the Middle East and India |
Timbuktu | A significant historical city in Mali, known for its role as a cultural and economic hub during the medieval period. It became a vital center for trade, education, and Islamic scholarship, connecting various regions across the Sahara and influencing the spread of Islam in West Africa. |
Zanj revolt | A major slave rebellion against the Abbasid Caliphate that took place in lower Iraq between 869 and 883 CE |
Trans-Saharan trade | The network of trade routes that connected sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa across the Sahara Desert, facilitating the exchange of goods like gold, salt, ivory, and slaves, primarily between the 8th and 17th centuries, with the peak occurring between 1200 and 1450 CE; this trade was largely made possible by the use of camel caravans and significantly impacted the economies and societies of the regions involved, also spreading Islam into West Africa. |
CHAP 19 | https://knowt.com/flashcards/f7346481-8b3b-496a-b26d-0b68adbb131c |
Battle of Manzikert | The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, theme of Iberia. |
Cathars | Catharism was a Christian quasi-dualist or pseudo-Gnostic movement which thrived in Southern Europe, particularly in northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. |
Cathedral | a large, impressive Christian church, typically built in the Gothic architectural style during the Medieval period in Europe |
Chivalry | An informal and varying code of conduct developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. |
Crusades | a series of military expeditions called the Crusades was launched from Christian Europe against the peoples of the Near East. Sparked by a zeal to rid the Holy Lands of "infidels"—meaning Moslems primarily—only the First Crusade achieved any real or lasting success. |
Dominicans | a prominent order in medieval Europe, playing a significant role in the cultural, intellectual, and spiritual life of their communities. The Dominicans were established in the 13th century by Spanish priest Dominic de Guzman and were known for their preaching, teaching, and pastoral care. Their mission was to combat heresy and spread the Gospel. |
Franciscans | The friars wandered and preached among the people, helping the poor and the sick. They supported themselves by working and by begging for food, but they were forbidden to accept money either as payment for work or as alms. The Franciscans worked at first in Umbria and then in the rest of Italy and abroad |
Frederick Barbarossa | was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King of Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and emperor by Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. the first to assign full imperial powers to the elected king of the Romans |
Guilds | an association of craftsmen or merchants formed for mutual aid and protection and for the furtherance of their professional interests. Were larger than economic, created a larger social sphere |
Hanseatic League | organization founded by north German towns and German merchant communities abroad to protect their mutual trading interests. |
Holy Roman Empire | The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages and lasted for almost a thousand years until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. |
Investiture Contest | was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops and abbots of monasteries and the pope himself. |
Marco Polo | was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who traveled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. Only non-mongolian to be appointed to a major position in Mongolia. |
Norman | member of those Vikings, or Norsemen, who settled in northern France (or the Frankish kingdom), together with their descendants |
Otto I | recognized as the first Holy Roman Emperor |
Pilgrimage | a journey undertaken by individuals to a sacred place considered holy within their religious faith |
Pope Urban II | otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening the Council of Clermont which ignited the series of Christian military expeditions known as the Crusades. |
Reconquista | The Reconquista or the reconquest of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian kingdoms waged against the Muslim kingdoms following the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Umayyad Caliphate, culminating in the reign of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. |
Saladin | Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub, commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, he spearheaded the Muslim military effort against the Crusader states in the Levant. |
Scholasticism | Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon Aristotelianism and the Ten Categories |
St. Thomas Aquinas | Scholasticism believer |
Three Estates | The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates developed and evolved over time. |
Troubadours | poet-musicians in the Middle Ages who wrote and performed songs and poems in the vernacular language. They were the primary source of secular music in the medieval period, and their work is still influential today |
William the Conqueror | He settled his power and founded a powerful Anglo-Norman kingdom |
Caravansari | a roadside inn or hostel built along ancient trade routes, particularly the Silk Road, where traveling merchants and their caravans could rest, find shelter, food, and water, and often exchange goods and cultural information while on their journeys |
Money economies/Flying money system | Uses paper money for trade, huge for the facilitation of trade, first adopted in china |
Kashgar trading city | major trading hub on the Silk Road |
Silk road trading network : | Mostly focused on luxury goods, credit and paper money, used caravansaries |
Indian ocean trading network : | Hull of ship can carry more |
Zheng Ha | Huge fleet, sent by Ming dynasty to go throughout the indian ocean in china's tributary system, spread technologies to various places |
Trans Saharan Trade : | the network of trade routes that connected sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa across the Sahara Desert, facilitating the exchange of goods like gold, salt, ivory, and slaves, primarily between the 8th and 17th centuries, with the peak occurring between 1200 and 1450 CE; this trade was largely made possible by the use of camel caravans and significantly impacted the economies and societies of the regions involved, also spreading Islam into West Africa. Key points about Trans-Saharan trade: Major commodities: Gold from West Africa was traded for salt from North Africa, with ivory also being a significant item. Transportation: Camel caravans were crucial for traversing the harsh desert landscape. CAMEL SATTLES Impact on culture: The trade routes facilitated the spread of Islam from North Africa into West Africa. Important trading cities: Timbuktu in Mali became a major center of commerce and learning due to its location on the Trans-Saharan trade routes |
Cultural consequences of trade connection : | Buddhism entered China via silk roads. |
Environmental consequences of trade connection : | Connectivity of trade routes helped plague spread. |
Diasporic communities : |