Exam 3

Memory Processes:

Encoding: refers to the initial process of taking in information and converting it into a format that can be stored in the brain

Storage: is the process of holding onto that information over time

Retrieval: is the act of accessing and bringing that stored information back into conscious awareness when needed

Techniques for improving memory:

Elaborative encoding: taking information we want to remember and embellishing it or attaching it to prior knowledge, we remember content better when it is processed more deeply.

Self-reference effect: we remember content better when it is linked to thoughts about ourselves

Encode information in multiple ways: when we encode content in multiple ways, we give ourselves multiple ways to retrieve it

Use the spacing effect: we remember content better when it is studied in shorter periods spaced over time

Practice overlearning: we continue to strengthen our memory for content even after we think we know the information perfectly

Use the testing effect: we remember content better when we test ourselves

Principles of Memory:

Serial position effect: The tendency to better remember information that occurs at the beginning and the end of a list, in comparison to memory for information that occurs in the middle of a list

Primacy effect: a tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list

Recency effect: the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list

Retroactive interference: learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier

Proactive interference: earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later

Retrograde amnesia: a memory disorder that produces an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time

Anterograde amnesia: the inability to transfer information from short-term into long-term memory

Intelligence:

General Intelligence: a broad mental capacity that influences a person's ability to process and think about information

Specific Intelligence: the proficiency in a specific subset of skills or abilities

The role of these things in intelligence level:

Brain

  • Parieto-Frontal Integration Model: the strength of the neuronal communication between the parietal and frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex predicts g.

    • Incoming Sensory information is processed by the cerebral cortex

    • Parietal lobes integrate the sensory information

    • Parietal lobes communicate with the frontal lobes to evaluate the information and solve problems

    • The anterior cingulate helps to implement the chosen solution and impede the solution not chosen

Genetics: Accounts for about half of the difference in intelligence.There is no single cognitive intelligence gene or set of genes.

  • Ethical concerns:

    • Avoiding biodeterminism

    • Knowing about low level of intelligence may lead to discrimination

    • Who owns the data?

    • Considering the emotional impact of knowing the information

Epigenetics: Our experiences can influence which of our genes are turned on or off.

Examples are prenatal levels of vitamin B12 and a gene related to the neurotransmitter dopamine. Epigenetic change may also occur due to aging.

Environmental Factors: Exposure to elements such as mercury, lead, pesticides, and air pollution, especially prenatally or in early childhood, are associated with lower cognitive intelligence scores. While children from low socioeconomic backgrounds may be most likely to be exposed to these substances, higher levels of cognitive intelligence may mitigate the negative effects of poverty.

Multiple intelligences: says that we have eight different specific intelligences

  • Linguistic: speaking and writing

  • Logico-mathematical: using logic and mathematical skills to solve problems

  • Spatial: thinking and reasoning about objects in three dimension

  • Musical: performing and enjoying music

  • Kinesthetic: moving the body such as in sports, dance, or other physical activities

  • Interpersonal: understanding and interacting effectively with others

  • Intrapersonal: having insight into the self

  • Naturalistic: recognizing, identifying, and understanding animals, plants, and other living things

Emotional intelligence: is our “ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities”

Cultural intelligence: our ability “to function effectively in situations characterized by cultural diversity”

Language:

Critical period: a time in which learning can occur easily.

  • for language learning, the critical period lasts between infancy and puberty, after which learning language is difficult, if not impossible

Broca’s area: near the motor cortex, is important in language production

Wernicke’s area: near the auditory cortex, is important for language comprehension.

Aphasia: condition in which language functions are severely impaired

Emotions:

Affect: The experience of feeling or emotion, or our display of it

Arousal: Our experience of the bodily responses created by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.

James-Lange theory: Arousal causes emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotions and arousal occur at the same time

Shacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal and cognition combine to create emotion

Misattribution of Arousal: The tendency to incorrectly label the source of the physiological arousal one is experiencing.

Emotional regulation strategies

  • Situation Selection: we choose situations based on the emotion we want to feel or avoid; watch a comedy or a horror movie

  • Situation Modification: we alter the situation to alter our emotions; family meal with varying political views – ask that no politics are discussed

  • Attentional Deployment: shift our attention to or from an emotion; distract ourselves. When we ruminate, we can’t think or feel anything else

  • Cognitive Change: change how we think about a situation; we do this a lot after a break up- when someone tells you “they didn’t deserve you anyway!” or “There are better guys/girls out there!” shifts from sadness to hopefulness

  • Response Modulation: mitigate/reduce the effects of an emotion; when feeling angry, you may go for a run, eat a donut, go shopping…

Stress:

General Adaptation Syndrome: the three distinct phases of physiological change that occur in response to long term stress

  • General alarm reaction

  • Resistance

  • Exhaustion

Fight-or-flight response: An emotional and behavioral reaction that increases the readiness for action. Allows one to control the stressor or leave the situation.

Tend-and-befriend response: A behavioral reaction that creates social networks to provide protection from threats. Recruits social support and allows for the exchange of resources.

Stress management tips:

  • Eliminate the stressor

  • Give and receive social support

  • Relax Muscles

  • Meditate

  • Get good sleep

  • Exercise

  • Experience nature

  • Do fun stuff

  • Change thoughts about stressor

  • Ask for help

PERMA model of subjective well-being

Positive Emotions

Engagement

Relationships

Meaning

Accomplishment