A and EA Final chapters 10-13

Chapter 10- School 

Secondary school- developed countries 

US

  • Comprehensive high school curriculum- reading, math, science, social studies, PE, art, music 

  • Flexibility in career decisions- learning a career or trade 

  • Control in states/local districts

Europe 

  • Types: college, vocational, & professional

  • Identify career paths earlier (15-16) 

  • National level system 

Developing countries 

  • Rising enrollment- highest for elementary- dropoff for secondary and tertiary school 

  • Illiteracy decreasing 

  • Teacher Quantity & Quality

  • Inadequate Funding

Discrepancies 

  • Location: Urban > Rural

  • Social Class: High/Mid > Low

  • Gender: Males > Females

International comparisons 

  • Developed > Developing

Japan > US

  • Value education more

  • Longer school days

  • Longer school year

  • Vertically building national curriculum

  • Negative: Focus on rote memorization

  • Effort over ability

  • “Cram” Schools/Tutoring 

School and class size

  • Optimal size 500-1000

  • Class size (20-40)- no effect 

Large schools 

  • Less attachment to school and teachers 

  • More diverse class offerings and activities 

Small schools 

  • Less diverse options 

  • Higher participation and leadership 

School start time 

  • Circadian Rhythm

  • Morning: Children & Adults

  • Evening: Adolescents (to age ~21)

Later Start Times Increase

  • Hours slept

  • Attendance

  • Grades

  • Achievement test scores

  • Well-being

School climate 

  • School Climate (Rutter)

  • Supportive & involved

  • High expectations

  • Behavioral control

Outcomes 

  • Achievement 

  • Behavior/Delinquency 

  • Mental health 

  • Engagement/Motivation 

Parents- western setting  

  • Genes and environment 

  • Academic involvement- parents who care about their kids grades  

  • School involvement- involved with school activities, teachers, what their kids are doing and what they 

are learning 

  • Direct- involvement (authoritative)- foster characteristics that help kids be successful in school 

  • Indirect- child characteristics (authoritarian and permissive) 

  • Cultural context- Asian American families don't fit well (fit both authoritative and authoritarian) 

Peers and friends 

Friends

  • More influence than parents 

  • Beyond selective association- risk behavior, lower achiever friends get pulled up by their higher

             achieving friends, encourage them to study and help with homework 

  • Parents influence friends

Peers 

  • Social comparison- feeling bad about yourself (low achieving comparing to high achieving)  

  • Big fish in little pond effect 

Work and leisure 

Work 

  • 10+ hours per week is detrimental 

  • Effects beyond self-selection- thinking having a job is more important than school because they 

are not doing well at school- working more makes you do worse at school 

  • More likely to cut class, do your homework, negative mental health symptoms, less sleep 

Leisure 

  • Socializing negative impact 

  • Organized activities positive impact 

Academic achievement 

Social class 

  • IQ- lower, passive genotype  

  • Nutrition- not be able to afford healthy food  

  • Health care- not able to afford health care, leads to chronic health problems 

  • School quality- lower 

  • Family stressors 

  • Parenting style and involvement 

Ethnic differences in US

Asian American

  • Parental expectations

  • Effort > ability

  • Academically oriented friends

Prejudice & Discrimination

  • Latinx – strong association

  • African American – weaker association

  • “Acting white”

  • Immigrant paradox 

Gender differences 

  • Girls > Boys

  • Grades

  • Graduation rates

Reasons why 

  • Enjoy school more 

  • More supportive relationships 

  • More time doing homework 

Gifted kids characteristics

  • Precocity

  • Independence

  • Drive for mastery

  • Excellence in information processing

  • Advanced Placement (AP) classes

  • Social Difficulties

Disabilities 

Learning disabilities

  • Prevalence: 8%

  • Gender: Males 2x Females 

Comorbid:

  • ADHD

  • Social & emotional problems

  • Early Intervention

ADHD 

  • Prevalence: 9.5%

  • Gender: Males >2x Females

Comorbid:

  • LD

  • Social & emotional problems

  • Medication & Behavioral Therapy

High school dropouts 

Predictors

  • Academic: low grades/repeat grade

  • Personal: low IQ, LD, male, & Latinx

  • Parent education & income 

Outcomes

  • Internalizing issues (e.g., depression)

  • Externalizing issues (e.g., substance use)

  • Unemployment/Lower wages

Tertiary school

Student characteristics 

Gender

  • Attend: Females (70%) > Males (55%)

  • Degree: Females (46%) > Males (36%)

  • Majors

  • Graduate Programs: 60% women

Ethnicity

  • SES confound 

  • Asian (85%) > Whites and Blacks (61%) > Latinx (59%) 

Educational success 

Average time: 5-6 years

  • Financial reasons

  • Other: change majors, study abroad, etc

Retention (40% drop out)

  • Prior academic performance

  • Ethnicity

  • SES

  • Personal issues

  • Intervention to Increase Retention

Benefits of college 

  • Student Satisfaction High

  • Short-term

  • Academic

  • Non-academic

Long term 

  • Career and income (60% higher) 

  • Social and psychological 

Gap year 

  • US (2%) < Europe/Australia

  • Motivation For Taking

  • Diverse Experiences

Benefits:

  • Academic motivation 

  • major/career direction 

  • Academic performance 

  • Employability 

Chapter 11- Work

Traditional cultures 

Forms of work  

  • Hunting, fishing, farming 

  • Gathering, house work chores/childcare 

Globalization/Industrialization 

Pros 

  • Access to electricity, education, and medical care

  • Income, respect, skills/contacts 

  • Signs of improvement now

Cons 

  • Brutal work, long hours, low pay 

  • Debt bondage 

  • Commercial sexual exploitation 

Work in the West 

History 

  • 17th-18th Centuries – Agriculture

  • 18th-19th Centuries – Industrialization

  • 20th Century

  • Age of Adolescence (1890-1920)

  • After WWII – part-time work

  • 1950-2000: 1/2 work

  • 2000-present: ~1/3 to 1/4 work

  • Decreased demand for low wage jobs 

  • Increased minimum wage 

  • Increased demand of high school 

Workplace experiences 

First jobs 

  • Girls- babysitting 

  • Boys- yardwork 

High school

  • Restaurant or retail 

  • Repetitive and monotonous 

  • Unconnected to education/career 

Work outcomes- negative (>10 hours per week )

  • Academic performance (Ch 10)

  • Worse sleep, diet, & exercise

  • More anxiety & depression

  • Alcohol, cigarettes, & drugs

  • Stress relief

  • Disposable income

  • Occupational deviance

Work outcomes- positive 

  • Responsibility/Independence

  • Time Management

  • Money Management

  • Social Skills

  • Work Ethic/Integrity

  • Educational Attainment

  • Employment in EA

Work in a knowledge economy 

  • Math and reading 

  • Collaborating with diverse people 

  • Oral and written communication 

  • Ability to learn/adapt 

  • Information technology 

  • Problem solving 

Occupational training- US

  • ~30% work after high school

  • Government program for low SES

  • Finish high school/GED

  • Job training (up to 3 years)

  • Employment assistance

Benefits 

  • Higher literacy/numeracy 

  • Higher rate of high school completion/GED 

  • Working more hours and higher pay 

  • Fewer arrests 

Occupational training- western europe 

  • Apprenticeship Model

  • Features

  • Age 16 (2-3 years)

  • Part-time school

  • Training in workplace

  • School to Work Pipeline

  • Transparency v. Permeability

Occupational goals stages 

  • Crystallization- (14-18) develop tentative goal and seek information 

  • Specification- (18-21) firm vocational goal and pursue education/training 

  • Implementation (21-24) finish training and seek employment 

  • Stabilization (25-35) establish career and gain experience 

  • Consolization (35+) gain expertise and seek advancement   

Influences on occupational goals 

Personality characteristics

  • Realistics, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional 

Gender 

  • Women’s jobs- service sector, lower pay (~83%)

Why

  • Gender socialization 

  • Work-family balance (second shift) 

Identity based work 

  • Systematic exploration 

  • Meandering or drifting 

Military service 

Non voluntary 

  • Trauma exposure 

  • Internalizing and externalizing problems 

  • therapy/intervention 

Voluntary 

  • Self-confidence & discipline

  • Collaboration & leadership skills

  • Educational/Occupational opportunities

 Unemployment 

  • EA (2x) > Adults

  • Blacks > Other Ethnicities

  • Outcomes: Depression, Substance Use

  • Not in education, employment, or training (NEET) 

  • Solutions: education, training, employment access

Community service 

Motivation

  • Collectivistic – help others

  • Individualistic – intrinsic & extrinsic

Benefits 

  • Academic- educational goals/performance 

  • Personal- ideals, actual- ideal discrepancy 

  • Social- build relationships (parents) 

  • Civic- social problems and solutions 

Chapter 12- Media 

Rates of use 

Digital Devices

  • 88% of US adolescents have

  • Texting, social media, & internet

  • Earlier adoption than adults

Traditional Media (e.g., TV, Music, etc.)

  • Average Hours Total = 8

  • Gender Difference

Theories of media influence 

Theories

Cultivation Theory (Gerbner)

  • Mean world syndrome

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

  • Bo-Bo Doll

Uses and Gratifications Approach

  • People choose different media

  • People respond differently to same media

Five uses of media 

  • Environment 

  • Identity formation 

  • Sensation seeking 

  • Coping 

  • Youth culture 

Media and socialization 

Identity Formation

  • Family influence decreases

  • Friends & media increase

Media

  • Broad socialization

  • Few restrictions

  • Market-driven/consumer control

  • Super peer

Social media

Higher on  

  • Stress, anxiety, depression 

  • Substance use (alcohol, drugs, tobacco) 

  • Risky sexual behavior 

  • Gambling 

  • Self-injury and suicidal ideation 

  • Pro- political activism 

Lower on 

  • Healthy eating behaviors 

  • Body image 

Qualitative Patterns (Brown):

  • intrigued, resisters, & disinterested

Television and aggression 

Research

  • Correlational Studies – not causal

  • Field Studies - inconsistent

  • Longitudinal Study (Huesmann)

  • TV violence at 8 predicts aggression at ages 19 and 30 in males

Natural Experiment (MacBeth)

  • Pre: NoTel < Unitel & Multitel

  • Post (2 years after TV): No difference 

Conclusions

  • Childhood Aggression

  • Influences Attitudes toward Violence

  • Relational Aggression

Electronic games and aggression 

Prevalent Use

  • Similar to TV

  • Mostly correlational studies

  • Mixed evidence on behavior

  • Stronger evidence on attitudes

Uses and Gratifications Approach

  • Social aspects

  • Cathartic effect 

Media and Sex 

Non explicit content 

  • Viewing 

  • Gender stereotypes 

  • Sexual attitudes 

  • Sexual behaviors 

  • Girls- intrigued, resisters, disinterested 

Sexting 

  • EA > adolescents 

  • Girls- conflicted 

Pornography 

  • Sexually explicit- mixed 

  • Sexually violent 

  • Aggression and sexual violence 

Adolescents 

  • Users- advanced puberty, sensation seeking, family problems 

  • Outcomes- permissive- sexual attitudes/behaviors, sexual gender-stereotypes, sexual aggression  

Music- Hip-Hop

Criticisms

  • Misogyny

  • Violence

  • Racism

Research

  • Limited

  • Correlational

  • Uses and gratifications

Advertising- cigarettes 

Targeting Adolescents

  • Cognitively vulnerable

  • Research

  • Lawsuits

Current trends 

  • Less or anti-tobacco advertising 

  • Electronic cigarettes 

  • Developing countries 

Social media 

  • Communicate with Friends

  • Primarily Positive Effects (2012)

  • Some Concerns

  • Want to unplug

  • Others texting

Media use outcomes 

Emotional

  • Well-being

  • Mental health

  • Life Satisfaction

Physical

  • Sleep

  • Activity

  • Weight

Cognitive

  • Academic

  • Executive

  • Function

  • Memory

Social

  • Aggression

  • Stereotypes

  • Peer Interaction

Western Values 

Why Adolescence?

  • More freedom than children

  • Less traditional than adults

  • Identity formation

Individualism

  • Gender roles

  • Romantic relationships

  • Competition (e.g., sports)

  • Body image

  • Laptop study: independence & achievement

  • Bicultural Identity (Indipop)

Chapter 13- Problems and Resilience 

Internalizing vs Externalizing 

Internalizing problems

  • High parental control

  • Overcontrolled

  • Experience distress

  • Females > Males

  • Withdrawal, avoidance, somatic complaints, anxiety, depression 

Externalizing problems 

  • Low parental monitoring 

  • Undercontrolled 

  • Desire for excitement 

  • Males > Females

  • Oppositionality, defiance, outbursts, aggression, temper 

Crash risks 

  • Inexperience of driving (<1 year) 

  • Age (15-24) 

  • Gender (boys> girls) 

  • Risky driving behaviors- speeding, changing lanes aggressively, bad following distance, drunk driving  

  • Friend influence 

  • Personality characteristics 

  • Optimistic bias 

Preventing accidents 

  • Driver education- no effect  

  • Graduated driver licensing (GDL) 

  • Learning license (permit) 

  • Restricted license (curfew) 

  • Full license 

Substance use: US

Usage

  • Age trends

  • Propensity & Opportunity (Osgood)

  • Unstructured socializing

Types 

  • Experimental use 

  • Social use 

  • Medicinal use 

  • Addictive use 

Delinquency and crime 

Characteristics 

  • Peak age (12-25) 

  • Gender (male) 

  • Ethnicity (black and latino) 

  • SES (low) 

  • Urban neighborhood 

Reasons 

  • Lack of adult supervision 

  • Friend influence 

  • Sensation seeking 

  • Access to guns 

Types of delinquency 

Adolescence-limited delinquency (ALDs) 

  • Occasional criminal activity (12-25) 

  • No problems before or after 

Life course persistent delinquents (LCPDs) 

  • Neuropsychological deficits 

  • High risk environment 

  • Prone to criminal behavior as adults 

Therapy and vocational training 

  • Low success rate 

  • Delinquency pattern established 

  • Non-voluntary/Don’t have problem 

  • Peer contagion 

More effective approaches 

  • Functional family therapy 

  • Multisystemic approach 

Risk factors for externalizing problems 

Socialization sources 

  • Family structure

  • Family process

  • Parenting styles

  • Friends’ influence

  • School

  • Neighborhood

  • Media

  • Legal system

  • Cultural beliefs

Individual factors 

  • Gender 

  • Ethnicity/SES 

  • Aggressiveness 

  • High sensation seeking 

  • Low impulse control 

  • Cognitive deficits 

  • Optimistic bias 

Depression 

  • Depressed mood (37%) v. Major depressive disorder (6%)

Diathesis-Stress Model

  • Biological vulnerability

  • Environmental stresses

Females > Males

  • Body image

  • Focus on relationships (e.g., conflict/stress)

  • Focus on feelings (e.g., rumination)

Treatment for depression 

Anti-Depression medications 

  • Placebo design studies 

  • Increased risk of suicide 

Psychotherapy 

  • Individual vs group 

  • Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) 

  • Combination = Most Effective 

Anxiety

  • Prevalence- 10% adolescents

  • Cause: gene environment interactions 

  • Female > male 

  • Timid/risk averse personality 

Treatment 

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) 

  • Medication 

  • Combination most effective 

  • Comorbidity (~⅓ also depressed) 

Suicide 

Across Countries

Within US

  • Ethnic differences

  • Gender differences

Risk Factors 

  • Depression, family factors, substance abuse, & relationship conflict)

  • Three Pathways: chronic problems, severe mental illness, & acute crisis

  • Treatment- CBT and antidepressants 

Eating disorders 

Anorexia

  • Restricted eating

  • Fear of weight gain

  • Distorted body image

  • Weight: Low

Bulimia

  • Binging & Purging

  • Fear of weight gain

  • Recognize dysfunctional eating

  • Weight: Average

  • Prevalence: 3% of adolescents

Risk Factors

  • Culture (Thin ideal)

  • Media (Thin ideal)

  • Gender (Female)

  • Race/Ethnicity (White)

  • SES (middle to upper)

  • Genetic vulnerability (e.g., anxiety/depression)

Treatment

  • Anorexia: Often in-patient

  • Family Therapy > Individual or Medications

  • Bulimia: Outpatient CBT

Protective Factors 

Resilience 

  • High intelligence 

  • Caring adult 

  • Religious beliefs 

  • School climate 

Emerging adulthood 

  • Werner’s Kauai Study 

  • Longitudinal study of at-risk children

  • Childhood 1 of 3 resilience 

  • Age 40- 5 of 6 resilience  

Promise for intervention 

  • Reappraise difficulties as strengths 

  • Ability to leave environment 

  • Turning point opportunities 

  • Planful competence