Chpt 6 Etruscan and Roman Art
Etruscan and Roman Art Study Notes
The Etruscans (1 of 4)
Emergence of Society: The Etruscans emerged in Etruria in the seventh century BCE.
Artistic Skills: Etruscan artists excelled in monumental sculpture using terra-cotta materials.
Example: The life-size terra-cotta statue of Apulu mirrors Archaic Greek sculptures, showcasing a smile inherent to Greek styles, but distinctly Etruscan in its purposeful movement and robe design.
Figures
Figure 6-1: Novios Plautios Ficoroni Cista (350-300 BCE, Bronze, Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome)
Image description and credit details.
The Etruscans (2 of 4)
Architectural Resemblance: Roman architect Vitruvius noted that Etruscan temples shared similarities with Greek temples.
Tuscan Order: This term describes a variant of the unfluted column shaft, characterized by a simplified base, capital, and entablature.
Figures
Figure 6-2: Apulu (Apollo) attributed to Master Sculptor Vulca from the Temple of Minerva (c. 510-500 BCE, Painted terra cotta, Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome).
Image description and credit details.
Figure 6-3a: Model of Etruscan Temples
Figure 6-3b: Plan of Etruscan Temples based on Vitruvius’s descriptions.
Photo credit details.
The Etruscans (3 of 4)
Home Structure: Typical Etruscan homes were built around a central atrium, resembling a domestic structure.
Tombs: The Tomb of the Relief simulates such a structure, furnished with plastered or stucco walls.
Painted Scenes: The Tomb of the Triclinium at Tarquinia features painted imagery of dancers, diners, and reveled life.
Figures
Figure 6-4: Burial Chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs (3rd century BCE, Cerveteri).
Figure 6-5: Dancers and Diners from the Tomb of the Triclinium (c. 480-470 BCE).
The Etruscans (4 of 4)
Sarcophagi Design: Etruscan sarcophagi illustrate domestic life; one notable work depicts a couple with lively gestures, inviting viewers to partake in their festivities, echoing themes in tomb wall paintings.
Figures
Figure 6-6: Reclining Couple on a Sarcophagus from Cerveteri (c. 520 BCE, Terra cotta, Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome).
The Romans: From Republic to Empire
Historical Context: Latin-speaking inhabitants of Rome absorbed Etruscan culture by the third century BCE.
Monumental Buildings: The Roman government deployed monumental building programs to unify the empire, including forums, basilicas, theaters, racetracks, and water systems.
Cultural Borrowing: Roman culture heavily borrowed from Greek and Hellenistic influences, adopting Greek gods and integrating them into their own traditions.
The Republican Period (1 of 4)
Julius Caesar’s Rule: The dictatorship of Julius Caesar commenced after an oligarchic period known as the First Triumvirate, notably marked by a coin featuring his portrait (denarius of 44 BCE).
Figures
Figure 6-7: Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar (44 BCE, Silver).
The Republican Period (2 of 4)
Verism in Portraiture: The convention of verism is exemplified in the realistic portrayal of Aulus Metellus, depicted in a toga with an outstretched arm, typical of Roman memorial statues.
Figures
Figure 6-8: Aulus Metellus (c. 80 BCE, Bronze, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Florence).
Art and Its Contexts
Roman Portraiture: The tradition of creating likenesses of revered figures for funerals led to a broader emphasis on portraiture in Roman art, highlighting the concept of verism as a faithful representation of physical appearance.
Figures
Figure 6-9: Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (Barberini Togatus, End of 1st century BCE or beginning of 1st century CE, Marble).
The Republican Period (3 of 4)
Architecture: Roman architecture mirrored Etruscan and Greek styles, like the Temple dedicated to Portunus located in urban commercial areas, distinguished by engaged half-columns.
Figures
Figure 6-10a: Exterior view of a temple (perhaps dedicated to Portunus, Late 2nd century BCE).
Figure 6-10b: Plan of the temple.
The Republican Period (4 of 4)
Engineering Marvel: The Pont du Gard in southern France exemplifies Roman engineering prowess through its aqueduct system, securely constructed with wedge-shaped stones called voissoirs.
Figures
Figure 6-11: Pont du Gard, Near Nîmes, France (Late 1st century BCE).
Elements of Architecture: Arch and Vault
Details regarding the construction and design elements of arches and vaults used in Roman architecture.
The Age of Augustus (1 of 2)
Augustus’s Ascendancy: Octavian, later Augustus, gained power in 44 CE. Notable is the over-life-size statue of Augustus found at Primaporta, symbolizing political propaganda through naturalistic detail.
Figures
Figure 6-12: Augustus of Primaporta (Early 1st century CE, Marble).
The Age of Augustus (2 of 2)
Ara Pacis Augustae: Commemorating Augustus's returns and his achievements, it unites portraiture with allegorical representations unlike earlier Greek styles, establishing a narrative in relief sculptures.
Figures
Figure 6-13: Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace, 13-9 BCE, Marble).
Figure 6-14: Imperial Procession relief detail from the Ara Pacis.
The Roman Home (1 of 4)
Residential Structures: Most Romans resided in multistory apartment buildings, particularly noted is the preservation of Pompeii due to a volcanic eruption in 79 CE.
Figures
Figure 6-15: Plan of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii (Rebuilt 62-79 CE).
The Roman Home (2 of 4)
Decorative Art: Mosaics adorned floors and fountains; wall paintings created illusions of marble textures, expanding visual space and architectural detail.
Figures
Figure 6-17: Heraklitos, The Unswept Floor (Mosaic, 2nd century CE).
The Roman Home (3 of 4)
House of the Vettii Details: The room referred to as the “Ixion” room featured wall paintings that enhanced the sense of three-dimensionality using linear perspective.
Figures
Figure 6-18: Wall painting in the “Ixion Room” from House of the Vettii (62-79 CE).
The Roman Home (4 of 4)
Villa of the Mysteries: Showcasing initiation rites into the Bacchus cult with distinct artistic elements like a vivid red wall color termed “Pompeian red.”
Figures
Figure 6-19: Wall painting from the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii (c. 60-50 BCE).
Imperial Rome
Political Context: Post-Augustus, various emperors shaped imperial dynamics; under Trajan, the empire reached its territorial zenith.
Imperial Art and Architecture (1 of 6)
Colosseum: An architectural marvel for public spectacles, constructed from travertine and tufa, featuring a massive attic story.
Figures
Figure 6-20: Colosseum, Rome (72-80 CE).
Imperial Art and Architecture (2 of 6)
Arch of Titus: This triumphal arch represents military successes, notably the capture of Jerusalem, with deep reliefs that create a sense of movement.
Figures
Figure 6-21: Arch of Titus, Rome (c. 81 CE).
Figure 6-22: Relief depicting the spoils from the Temple of Solomon, part of the Arch of Titus.
Imperial Art and Architecture (3 of 6)
Forum Variability: Emperors created smaller-scale projects like forums, which included multifunctional civic centers.
Figures
Figure 6-23: Model of Imperial Rome (c. 324 CE).
Imperial Art and Architecture (4 of 6)
Basilica Ulpia: Constructed as a court of law and characterized by its architectural features, including substantial groin vaults and two colonnaded aisles.
Figures
Figure 6-24a: Interior view of Blessing Ulpia.
Figure 6-24b: Plan of Basilica Ulpia.
Figure 6-25: The Column of Trajan, with intricate relief detailing significant historical narratives of Trajan’s life.
Imperial Art and Architecture (5 of 6)
Relievos on Columns: The Column of Trajan features scenes of military crossings and fort construction, making it comparable to modern shopping malls in scale.
Figures
Figure 6-26: Detail from Column of Trajan featuring Roman army crossing the Danube.
Imperial Art and Architecture (6 of 6)
Pantheon: A temple showcasing Roman engineering, highlighted by its formidable dome and oculus, and designed to resemble a typical temple facade.
Figures
Figure 6-27: Dome of the Pantheon, Rome (110-128 CE).
Figure 6-28a: Exterior view of the Pantheon.
Figure 6-28b: Plan of the Pantheon.
Portraits in Sculpture and Painting (1 of 4)
Idealization and Realism: The Young Flavian Woman displays idealized features while the Middle-Aged Flavian Woman contrasts this with realism reflective of time’s mark on her face.
Figures
Figure 6-29a & 6-29b: Young Flavian Woman (c. 90 CE).
Figure 6-30a & 6-30b: Middle-Aged Flavian Woman (Late 1st century CE).
Portraits in Sculpture and Painting (2 of 4)
Wall Paintings: Pompeian wall paintings conveying individual likenesses, enhancing human connection through personal representation in art.
Figures
Figure 6-31: Portrait of a Married Couple (Mid 1st century CE, wall painting from Pompeii).
Portraits in Sculpture and Painting (3 of 4)
Marcus Aurelius: Represented without armor, emphasizing philosophical leadership and military achievements through symbolic gestures.
Figures
Figure 6-32: Marcus Aurelius (c. 176 CE, Bronze).
Portraits in Sculpture and Painting (4 of 4)
Commodus’ Representation: Commodus depicted as Hercules reflects his imperial pride and familial resemblance to his father.
Figures
Figure 6-33: Commodus as Hercules (c. 191-192 CE, Marble).
The Late Empire (1 of 4)
Decline and Anarchy: The Roman Empire faced decline post-Commodus, leading to a period of anarchy until Diocletian's reforms (284-305 CE).
The Tetrarchs: Illustrate an abstract style contrasting the classical forms of previous representations.
Figures
Figure 6-34: The Tetrarchs (c. 300 CE, Porphyry).
The Late Empire (2 of 4)
The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine: Notable as the last major construction in Rome, integrating advanced architectural features like groin and barrel vaults.
Figures
Figure 6-35a: Exterior view of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (306-313 CE).
Figure 6-35b: Plan of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine.
The Late Empire (3 of 4)
Constantine’s Portrait: A monument within the basilica reflects imperial authority during absences. A triumphal arch commemorates his victory using elements of classical architecture.
Figures
Figure 6-36: Constantine the Great (325-326 CE, Marble).
Figure 6-37: Arch of Constantine (312-315 CE).
The Late Empire (4 of 4)
New Relief Styles: The Arch of Constantine's reliefs signify a shift to a more stylized artistic approach, moving away from the realistic depiction of historical figures.
Figures
Figure 6-38: Hadrian hunting boar and sacrificing to Apollo, a roundel from earlier monuments, now reused in the arch.
Discussion Questions
Etruscan Tombs: Examine how the subjects depicted in Etruscan tomb art symbolize the vibrancy of human life.
Roman Portraiture: Analyze how the practices of early Roman funerary rituals influenced the evolution of portraiture.
Imperial Monuments: Explore how public monuments served as propaganda for Roman emperors, using examples from the chapter.
Stylistic Shifts: Discuss the factors contributing to the radical stylistic transformations in human representation during the Late Roman Empire.
Architectural Resemblance: Roman architect Vitruvius noted that Etruscan temples shared similarities with Greek temples.
Tuscan Order: This term describes a variant of the unfluted column shaft, characterized by a simplified base, capital, and entablature.
The Romans were most influenced by Greece. Greek culture had a profound impact on Roman art, philosophy, religion, and governance. As the Romans expanded their empire, they adopted various elements of Greek culture, including their gods, artistic styles, and architectural practices. This cultural assimilation resulted in what is often referred to as Greco-Roman culture, a significant driver of the Roman Empire's identity and legacy.
Roman architecture mirrored Etruscan and Greek styles, like the Temple dedicated to Portunus located in urban commercial areas, distinguished by engaged half-columns.
A structure designed to carry flowing water, sometimes supported on arches, is called an aqueduct. Aqueducts were crucial in ancient engineering, allowing for the transportation of water over long distances to supply cities and agricultural areas.
An arch extended overhead into a half cylinder is called a barrel vault. A barrel vault is formed by extending a single curve (such as a semicircle) along a straight line, creating a tunnel-like structure. In contrast, a groin vault is formed when two barrel vaults intersect at right angles.
A massive masonry support built against an exterior wall to brace the wall and contain thrust is called a buttress. Buttresses are commonly used in Gothic architecture to support and stabilize walls, especially in structures with large windows or openings.
Two equal intersecting barrel vaults form a groin vault. A groin vault is created when two barrel vaults intersect at right angles, which results in a more complex and often visually striking architectural form.
A series of arches in a row is called a arcade. Arcades can be used in various architectural styles and are often employed in the design of walkways, galleries, or covered passageways, adding both structural support and aesthetic appeal.
Corridors that border the main space in a building are typically referred to as porticoes or aisles. In many architectural designs, these corridors provide access to different areas and enhance the spatial flow within the structure. They can also serve as transitional spaces leading into the main interior of the building, supporting both functionality and aesthetic appeal. In some cases, they might be covered or open, depending on the architectural style and purpose of the building.
A circular or closely related shaped building usually covered with a dome is called a rotunda. Rotundas are architectural features that can serve various purposes, such as religious structures, governmental buildings, and memorials. The Pantheon in Rome is a classic example of a rotunda with a prominent dome, showcasing remarkable engineering and aesthetic design.
A circular wall that supports a dome is called a drum. The drum provides a base for the dome and can serve as a transitional element between the dome and the supporting structure, often enhancing the overall stability and aesthetic appeal of the building.
The device used inside the dome of the Pantheon to lighten its weight is called a coffer. Coffers are recessed panels that reduce the weight of the dome while maintaining its structural integrity. This ingenious design not only lightens the overall weight but also adds an aesthetic quality to the dome's interior.
In 313 CE, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance for Christians within the Roman Empire. This landmark decision allowed Christians to practice their faith freely without persecution, marking a significant shift in the relationship between the church and the state. The Edict of Milan was instrumental in the spread of Christianity, as it encouraged the growth of the religion and led to the eventual establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire.