Spanish-American War Overview
José Martí
José Martí was a Cuban nationalist and is regarded as a national hero of Cuba.
Major contributions:
Instrumental in achieving Cuban independence from Spain.
Significant contributor to Latin American literature.
Active political figure and philosopher.
Symbol of Cuba's fight for independence from the Spanish Empire in the 19th century.
Organized support among the Cuban exile community, particularly in Florida (Ybor City and Key West).
Goals:
Seek revolution and independence for Cuba from Spain.
Prevent U.S. annexation of Cuba, which some politicians desired.
Increased propaganda efforts from 1895, leading to enhanced American support for the Cuban rebels.
Valeriano Weyler
Martí was killed on May 19, 1895, during a reckless charge against Spanish forces.
In response to the Cuban rebels' successes, the Spanish government sent General Valeriano Weyler.
Weyler's response:
Introduced terror methods including executions, mass exiles (deportations), and destruction of farms and crops.
Notorious for the 'Reconcentration Policy.'
Reconcentration Policy:
Initiated on October 21, 1896, ordering rural residents and their livestock to gather in town centers.
Enforced relocations caused dire overcrowding, leading to suffering and death.
Recognized as the first use of concentration camps, also used in the Philippines.
Estimated that one-third of Cuba’s rural population perished due to this policy.
Continued until March 1898.
Yellow Journalism
Context: The Spanish-American War spurred an era of yellow journalism, which exaggerated news stories.
Impact on media:
Newspapers utilized sensational headlines to attract readers, thus increasing sales.
Example headlines included:
"Who Destroyed the Maine?"
"$50,000 Reward for Spanish Treachery!"
Origin of the term "Yellow Journalism":
Evolved from a rivalry between Pulitzer's New York World and Hearst's New York Journal.
Came from a comic strip featuring a character in a yellow nightshirt, known as the "Yellow Kid."
The term was initially "Yellow-Kid Journalism" before being shortened.
Conclusion: Yellow journalism intensified public sentiment for U.S. intervention in Cuba despite underlying political motives.
De Lôme Letter (1898)
Context: A letter by the Spanish Ambassador to the U.S., Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, criticizing President McKinley.
Contents of the letter conveyed that McKinley was weak and only sought popular favor.
Impact:
The publication of the letter, which was intercepted by Cuban revolutionaries, inflamed public support for war against Spain.
Released to the Hearst press and published on February 9, 1898.
Increased public bitterness towards Spain and propelled U.S. readiness for war.
Following the letter, President McKinley requested "forcible intervention" in Congress on April 11, 1898.
USS Maine Explosion
Incident: The battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 260 of its approximately 400 crew members.
Purpose of the USS Maine’s mission: To protect American interests amid growing turmoil.
Investigation:
U.S. Naval Court of Inquiry blamed a mine for the explosion.
Officially did not point to Spanish culpability.
Public reaction: Established belief in Spanish responsibility, leading to calls for war.
Analysis:
A 1976 investigation suggested that the explosion was likely caused by gunpowder igniting rather than a mine.
Battle of Manila Bay
Date: April 30, 1898.
U.S. naval commander, George Dewey, led the fleet into Manila Bay.
Initial contact:
Spaniards operated older warships; the U.S. fleet was superior.
Dewey’s strategic command came with the support of Theodore Roosevelt.
Events of the Battle:
Engagement resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet.
Dewey allowed a pause in fighting for the crew to rest and refuel.
After resumed fighting, the remaining Spanish fleet was asked to surrender, which they did by afternoon.
Casualties:
Spanish losses: over 370 troops; American losses: under 10.
Aftermath:
Signified U.S. control over Manila and prompted Spanish defeat in Cuba, leading to the armistice on August 12.
Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders
Context: In May 1898, a Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago de Cuba shortly after the war began.
U.S. military response:
The U.S. Navy established a blockade to hinder Spanish access.
In June, the Army's Fifth Corps landed with plans for an attack on Santiago.
The Rough Riders:
Comprised of Western cowboys and led by Theodore Roosevelt.
Significant engagements:
The Fifth Corps attacked El Caney on July 1.
Spanish defenders resisted strongly against a numerically superior force.
After successful movement toward San Juan Hill, the Rough Riders and Buffalo Soldiers contributed to capturing Kettle Hill and ultimately San Juan Ridge.
Conclusion:
U.S. naval engagement culminated in the destruction of the Spanish fleet by July 3, and by July 17, Cuba surrendered to the Americans.
Teller Amendment (1898)
The Teller Amendment, passed on April 20, 1898, was Congress's response to McKinley's War Message.
Key provisions:
The U.S. could not annex Cuba, ensuring that control would be returned to its people post-independence.
Treaty of Paris (1898)
Date of signing: December 10, 1898, officially ending the Spanish-American War.
Outcomes:
Dissolution of the Spanish Empire.
Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, and the Philippines were sold for $20 million.
Cuba became a U.S. protectorate.
Response from Philippine rebels:
Immediate opposition against U.S. control, seeking independence without foreign interference.
The Philippines gained independence in 1946.
Platt Amendment (1901)
Despite the war ending, the United States retained a strong military presence in Cuba.
The Platt Amendment was included in an Army Appropriations Bill in 1901.
Provisions included U.S. rights to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish a military base.
Guantanamo Bay:
Established as an American military base in Cuba with a lease signed in 1903, lacking a termination clause.
In 2002, parts of the base began detaining terrorists with connections to al-Qaeda and the Taliban.