Terrorism: Notes on Definition, Origin, Types, Methods, Measurement, Causes, and Countermeasures

What is Terrorism?

Definition: The unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims (Oxford English Dictionary). The Latin verb "terrere" means "to frighten."

Origin of the Term

Terrorism has deep roots, with early examples including:

• Hindu Thugs in India: Active around 2,500 years ago, these groups used murder as a means to instigate fear among travelers, committing acts of violence for material gain.

• Jewish Zealot-Sicarii: More than 1,900 years ago, this group used assassination and violence against Roman rule, exemplifying radical actions in the pursuit of ideological goals.

• Medieval Nizari Assassins: Active around 900 years ago, they resorted to targeted killings of political opponents, using fear to maintain control over territories.

These ancestral groups are considered precursors to contemporary fundamentalist terrorists.

The term "terrorism" gained prominence during the French Revolution, evolving from its historical roots to represent revolutionary actions. Maximalien Robespierre's philosophical assertions characterized terror as prompt, severe, inflexible justice that emanates from virtue and emerges from the needs of a democratic society. Thus, terrorism became interpreted as a necessary response to urgent national conditions, a viewpoint still debated today.

Modern Usage of the Term

The contemporary application of the term "terrorism" has become charged and pejorative. It is often used imprecisely by governments, non-state actors, and laymen to denounce opposing groups that employ violence in pursuit of their ambitions. The term typically applies to actions committed by non-state actors, who are seen as stepping beyond the boundaries of acceptable political conduct, contrasting with the state's use of violence.

Max Weber acknowledges that state violence is legitimized under certain circumstances. Defining a state as a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the use of physical force within a designated territory, it presents a distinction between benign (state violence) and malign (non-state violence) actions.

Terrorists or Freedom Fighters?

This phrase encapsulates the dilemma inherent in labeling. Notable figures often described variably as terrorists or freedom fighters include:

• Nelson Mandela (Anti-Apartheid/ANC)

• Abdullah Öcalan (PKK)

• Martin McGuinness (IRA/Sinn Fein)

• Yasser Arafat (PLO)

• Osama Bin Laden (Al Qaeda)

The categorization remains highly subjective, and there is significant debate over which groups are classified as terrorist organizations.

Current lists of designated terrorist organizations, as of March 2024, include 68 active groups such as Hamas, Hezbollah, PKK, Islamic State, Al-Shabaab, and Jaish-e-Mohammed, varying widely in their ideologies and objectives.

Types of Terrorism

Terrorism is frequently ideologically driven and often employed as a tool in the pursuit or defense of an ideology. Various categories based on ideological drivers include:

1. Revolutionary terrorism: e.g., French Revolutionaries, Bolsheviks, aiming for large-scale political change.

2. Sub-revolutionary terrorism: e.g., Army of God, targeting specific societal elements in opposition to broader ideals.

3. Nationalist-separatist terrorism: e.g., PKK, ETA, focusing on national identity and independence.

4. Religious extremist terrorism and religious fundamentalist terrorism: e.g., ISIS, aimed at implementing specific religious principles through violence.

5. New religions terrorism: e.g., Aum Shinrikyo in Japan, targeting broader societal structures from unique religious perspectives.

6. Far-right terrorism and far-left terrorism: e.g., Anders Breivik and Maoist rebels in northern India, reflecting political polarization.

7. Eco-terrorism: e.g., Animal Liberation Front, Earth First!, focused on environmental preservation through violent acts.

8. State-sponsored terrorism: e.g., alleged roles by states like Iran in promoting terrorism abroad.

9. Regime or state terrorism: accusations against nations like Israel regarding their treatment of Palestinians.

There’s an ongoing debate concerning the application of the term "state terrorism," as scholars like McCauley (2006) argue for a more nuanced distinction between state-sponsored and non-state terrorism.

Methods of Terrorism

Terrorism encompasses a variety of methods designed to instill fear and achieve political goals, including:

• Targeted killings: E.g., IRA's assassination of Lord Mountbatten, focused determination in targeting key figures.

• Randomized stabbings and shootings: Often cause mass civilian casualties to demonstrate vulnerability.

• Hostage taking: Aimed at raising stakes during negotiations or drawing media attention to causes.

• Bombings: Varieties include car bombs and building bombs, capable of indiscriminate destruction.

• Hijackings: E.g., the September 11 attacks, designed to provoke widespread panic.

• Suicide bombs: Used in highly populated areas to maximize casualties and fear.

• Symbolic attacks: E.g., ISIS desecrating archaeological sites and attacks aiming to demoralize and symbolize dominance.

• Copy-cat methods: Innovating methods based on previous attacks to create a broader fear response.

Factors Influencing Method Selection

Several factors influence terrorists’ choices of methods, including:

• Accuracy: Their emphasis on accurately hitting targets versus disregarding civilian casualties.

• Destructibility: The anticipated scale of destruction accompanying specific methods.

• Ease of Development: The accessibility of the knowledge needed to carry out attacks, often informed by social contacts and demonstrated successes.

• Success Rate of Deployment: The likelihood of an attack's success, with factors like technical error rates impacting operational decisions.

• Defensibility: The capacity of state or security forces to prevent or mitigate attacks from selected methods.

• Traceability: Criminals may prefer methods that allow them to avoid detection post-attack, aiming for future opportunities.

Measuring Terrorism: Global Terrorism Database (GTD)

The GTD, commissioned by START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism), began in 2001, when a research team at the University of Maryland began to collect and analyze data on terrorist activities.

• Data Coverage: It includes over 200,000 terrorist attacks recorded from 1970 to present, making it a comprehensive resource.

• Early Data Sources: Initially relied heavily on prominent news organizations such as the Associated Press, Agence-France Presse, and BBC.

• Later Data Sources: More recently, it has turned towards aggregators like Lexis/Nexis and Factiva for a more refined data collection process.

• Global Terrorism Index (GTI): Each year, the GTD publishes a GTI that summarizes global terrorism incidents.

Underlying Causes

Understanding terrorism requires examining broader societal issues that serve as catalysts, including:

• Underdevelopment: Regions with less economic and social infrastructure may be breeding grounds for extremist movements.

• Illiteracy: Lack of education can lead to vulnerability and susceptibility to extremist narratives.

• Economic Inequality: Disparities, particularly along ethnic or religious lines, can exacerbate tensions and unrest.

• Demographic Factors: Youth bulges in certain populations may lead to increased unrest.

• Political Issues: Such as state-center tensions, suppression, and foreign interventions contribute to grievances.

• Cultural Issues: The clash of civilizations and the role of media narratives can further entrench extremist views.

• Psychological Factors: Often, psychological motivations such as seeking revenge or identity validation spur individuals towards acts of terrorism.

Counterterrorism

In response, governments implement various counter-terrorism measures:

• Anti-terror legislation: including The Patriot Act (2001) in the US, allowing for detention and surveillance of suspected individuals.

• Intelligence: Improvements through sophisticated surveillance, informants, and infiltration efforts.

However, issues persist as terrorists often adapt quickly to counter-terrorist measures, necessitating constant evolution of strategies to combat them, highlighting the ongoing dynamic between terrorist strategies and counterterrorism efforts.

Societal Reaction

Society reacts variably to terrorist events, producing:

• Pro-reaction: Calls for stronger measures against terrorism and demands to identify perpetrators suspected of such acts.

• Anti-reaction: A viewpoint that critiques responses as excessive, highlighting concerns about collateral damage to civilians, the erosion of civil liberties, and potential for creating deeper cycles of hatred.

Terrorist actions often threaten democratic structures more rapidly than any terrorist group can achieve through systematic campaigns (Wilkinson, 2006: 61). Hence, a compelling argument remains that addressing root causes of terrorism should take precedence over merely responding to the actions it incites.