Social cleuvages. / dictatorships

FOUNDATIONS OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Social cleavages impact the formation and number of political parties in a country.
A key figure in understanding this relationship is Maurice Duverger, a French political scientist.

Key Argument: The number of political parties in existence can largely be explained by social divisions in society.
Social Divisions: These refer to cleavages such as class, religion, and other lines of social identity.
Cross-Cutting Cleavages: Occur when social categories are uncorrelated, allowing for multiple dimensions of identity to coexist independently. This scenario generally supports a multiparty system.
- Example: In Country A, there are four groups: rich Catholics, poor Catholics, rich Protestants, and poor Protestants, each making up 25% of the population. This variety increases demand for representation, leading to many parties.
Reinforcing Cleavages: Happen when social categories are correlated, limiting the dimensions of identity and leading to diminished representation and usually a two-party system.
- Example: In Country B, half of the population is rich Protestants and half is poor Catholics, which leads to only two major parties in competition (e.g., poor Catholic vs. rich Protestant).

The presence of cross-cutting cleavages leads to a greater number of political parties, whereas reinforcing cleavages lead to fewer parties.
Electoral institutions also play a significant role in determining whether social cleavages result in the emergence of political parties.

While social divisions create the demand for political parties, the type of electoral system dictates whether this demand translates into actual party formation.
Some countries with significant social cleavages may not see as many political parties if their electoral systems are nonproportional.
The Post-Materialist Cleavage: Emerged in the 1960s and varied in impact across European countries based on their electoral rules.

Definition: The mechanical effect describes how votes are converted into legislative seats, often disadvantaging smaller parties and favoring larger ones in nonproportional systems.
Single-Member District Plurality (SMDP): A nonproportional electoral system where only the candidate with the most votes wins, effectively nullifying the votes for losing candidates.
- Illustration: In a hypothetical country, Duvergerland, the Green Party, receiving 20% of the votes does not gain any seats due to SMDP, while larger parties dominate the legislature.
Example from the 1992 UK Elections:
- Conservative Party candidate David Harris wins with under 43% of votes, while the Liberal Democrat candidate, Andrew George, receiving 40.1%, ends with no seat due to SMDP.

Definition: Refers to voter and political elite behavior prompted by electoral laws.
- Strategic Voting: Voters often choose candidates perceived as likely to win, rather than their preferred candidates, in response to mechanical disadvantages faced by smaller parties.
- Example: In St. Ives, a voter prefers Labour but may vote for the Liberal Democrat to prevent a Conservative victory.
- Strategic Entry: Political elites may decide to run under the label of a party with better chances of winning instead of their favored party.

Duverger's Law: States that single-member district plurality (SMDP) systems tend to favor two-party systems.
Duverger's Hypothesis: Suggests that proportional representation systems favor multiparty systems.

Valid inference for predicting a two-party system operates at the district level, rather than the national scale.
Different parties may rise in different regions under SMDP, leading to a national multiparty system despite district-level advantages.

The interplay of social heterogeneity and electoral permissiveness is critical in determining party system size.
A society with high social cleavages coupled with permissive electoral systems tends to develop multiple parties effectively, while nonpermissive systems restrict representation.
Understanding these dynamic interactions provides essential insights into the nature of political systems across countries.

Political Party: Group of individuals who share common goals and seek to gain power through election of candidates.
Party Identification: The affiliation or loyalty to a political party, helping citizens position themselves politically.
Single-Party System: Only one political party is legally permitted.
Two-Party System: Only two major political parties hold realistic chances of power.
Multiparty System: More than two parties have a substantive chance at holding power.
Effective Number of Parties: A measure that accounts for both the number and relative sizes of parties.
Nichols's Iron Law of Oligarchy: Assertion that the leadership of organizations tends to act in their own interest rather than that of their constituents.
Cross-Cutting Cleavages: When different social categories do not correlate, encouraging a variation in political representation.
Reinforcing Cleavages: When social categories correlate, reducing complex representations in the political sphere.