social cognition

Social Cognition involves how we interpret, analyse, remember & use information to make judgements about people in social situations.

Personal Perception: refers to the mental processes we use to form impressions & draw conclusions about the personal characteristics of other people.

Halo Effect: a cognitive bias in which the impressions we form about one quality of a person influences our beliefs & expectations of the person’s other qualities.

Non-verbal Communication Our impressions of others are also influenced by their silent language. Non-verbal body language is an expression of behaviour that enables us to make quick & often accurate judgements about them.

Eye Contact: one of the most influential forms of non-verbal communication & is considered in different ways depending on culture.

Facial Expressions: some facial expressions are communicated in similar ways worldwide.

Attribution The process by which people explain the causes of their own or other people’s behaviour (personal or situational).

Personal/dispositional attribution: explanation due to the characteristics of person involved.

Situational attribution: explanation due to the factors external of the person involved.

Fundamental Attribution Error: tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors & underestimate the situational factors influencing behaviour. A reason for this is the saliency bias (focusing on a person’s behaviour more than their environment). We also have a just world belief (that you give what you get & vice versa, but in actuality, sometimes shit really does just happen).

Actor-observer bias: tendency to attribute our own behaviour to circumstances & other people’s to internal factors. (When you mess up it was the situation, when it’s someone else, they’re just an idiot) mentality.

Self-serving bias: when we take credit for successes but attribute failures to external factors. (Doing well on a test = good work by me, but a failed test = the teacher hates me.)

Culture & Attribution Research shows that westernised countries (Australia, North America & Western Europe) have an individualistic culture, whereas most Asian countries follow a more collectivist culture. Most people from a collectivist culture are far less likely to make the fundamental attribution error.

Individualistic: Being an independent individual is valued, with individual goals meaning more than group goals.

Collectivist: Group goals are prioritised over individual goals & should be put first.

Social Cognition (cont.) Attitudes Evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.

Tri-component model of attitudes: proposes that attitudes have 3 related components.

Affective component: positive, negative or neutral emotional reactions.

Behavioural component: how the attitude is expressed through actions.

Cognitive component: beliefs, thoughts & understandings based on facts & experiences. Sometimes there is inconsistency between components (called cognitive dissonance).

Factors Influencing Consistency Strength of attitude Accessibility of attitude Social context Perceived control

Factors Influencing Attitude Formation Classical conditioning: repeated association of two different stimuli. Operant conditioning: repeating rewarded behaviour & decreasing punished behaviour. Observational learning: observing the consequences of models’ actions. Repeated exposure: being exposed to an object/event repeatedly. More exposure often increases liking.

Stereotyping Primacy effect: when initial impressions formed are more influential than any later information. Stereotyping is the process of grouping people into categories on the basis of what we know of them.

Stereotype: a collection of beliefs we have about people who belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences.

Prejudice & Discrimination Prejudice: holding a negative attitude towards members of a group based off their membership of that group.

Old-fashioned: members of majority openly rejecting minority through obvious, recognisable behaviour.

Modern: subtle, hidden & more accepted socially.

Discrimination: positive/negative behaviour directed towards a social group & its members.

Direct: someone is treated unfairly because of a personal characteristic protected by the law.

Indirect: treating everyone the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic.

Social Cognition Pt. 2 Salience Any personal characteristic that draws attention, prominence, conspicuous or noticeable.

Social categorisation: categorising people into a group based on common characteristics.

Social stigma: negative attitudes & beliefs associated with people based on characteristics.

Cognitive dissonance: psychological state of discomfort when you notice extreme, uneven facts & inconsistency.

Stereotype: widely held beliefs about people in particular groups.

Types of Bias Confirmation bias: tendency to search for information that confirms pre-existing beliefs. Cognitive bias: error of judgement in evaluating/remembering information. Anchoring bias: relying too heavily on the first piece of information received when making a decision. Information bias: overestimating attention to certain information. Confirmation bias: tendency to select, recall or interpret information that confirms existing beliefs. False-consensus bias: tendency to overestimate extent to which others are like them in terms of beliefs, characteristics or behaviour. Hindsight bias: overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen (after the fact). Misinformation effect: information acquired after the fact that influences accuracy of original event. Optimism bias: overestimating the likelihood of positive outcomes & underestimating likelihood of negative ones. Dunning-Kruger effect: cognitive bias where people overestimate their knowledge or ability in relation to their experience.

Heuristics Availability heuristic: making a judgement based on information that is easiest to recall. Representativeness heuristic: categorising something by judging how closely it matches a typical category. Affect heuristic: making judgements influenced by the emotion experienced at the time.

Social Influence on Behaviour Social Influence: effects that presence/actions of others have on the way people think, feel & behave. Affected by status & social power.

Status: importance of an individual’s position in a group.

Social power: ability to control or influence thoughts, feelings & behaviours of others. Bases of social power in social interactions:

Reward Power Coercive Power Legitimate Power Referent Power Expert Power Group Influence Conformity: tendency to adjust thoughts/feelings/behaviour in ways that fit in with group. Group pressure: more likely to conform when group is unanimous. Group size: conformity increases with group size up to a point (after ~4 people it lessens). Normative influence: conforming to be liked/accepted. Informational influence: conforming when unsure, looking to others for guidance. Social loafing: tendency to make less effort in a group compared to alone. Deindividuation: loss of individuality in a group, leading to less personal responsibility.

Social Influences on Behaviour Normative Influence Occurs when our response in a group situation is guided by social norms. Culture There are cultural differences in conformity, with lowest levels of conformity in individualist countries (e.g., Australia, Germany, USA). Collectivist countries (e.g., Fiji, Hong Kong, Brazil) have higher conformity rates. Social Loafing Refers to the tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone. Deindividuation Loss of individuality in a faceless crowd, people sometimes lose their normal inhibitions and participate in anti-social behaviour.

Helping Behaviour Pro-social behaviour: intentional acts for the sake of helping others, as well as helping that benefits a personal cost to the helper.

Situational Factors Influencing People’s Desire to Help Noticing the situation – Alone = more likely to notice. Interpreting the situation – Do they actually need help? Taking responsibility for helping – Is it your responsibility/problem?

Bystander Effect Tendency for individuals to be less likely to help another person in need when other bystanders are present, or believed to be present, as compared to when alone.

Social Factors Social norms are standards that govern what people should and should not do in different social situations. Reciprocity Norm Expectations that you should “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” We should give what we receive or expect to receive. Obligation or responsibility/duty to do so.

Empathy Ability to identify with or understand another person’s feelings or difficulties. Psychologist Daniel Batson conducted extensive research on empathy → believes high empathetic concern makes people more likely to help regardless of the type of situation.

Mood Many studies show we are more likely to help when in a good mood.

Competence People with abilities or training that are relevant to the situation in which help is required are more likely to help.

Diffusion of Responsibility The belief that in a situation where help is required & others are present, one or more people will or should take responsibility for helping.

Audience Inhibition Presence of other people can make people stand back & not help for fear of looking stupid if help is not needed.

Cost–Benefit Analysis Involves an individual weighing up the personal & social costs of helping against the benefits of not helping.

Bullying Repeated physical or psychological aggressive behaviour by a person or group of people directed toward a less powerful person or group that is done to cause harm, distress, or fear.

Social Influences on Behaviour Types of Bullying Physical bullying Verbal bullying Covert bullying Cyberbullying Influence of Media The global village has changed how we are presented with information, how we gather & communicate as well as how we perceive ourselves.

Positive & Negative Influences → Television Despite changing media, TV remains the most influential in the lives of children & adults. TV has the potential to positively influence the behavioural & psychological development of children. TV is particularly important in providing learning opportunities & increasing a child’s general knowledge. Research has focused on the negative aspects of this potential for social influence, particularly children’s exposure to TV violence. Evidence that there is a link between TV violence & aggression in children (not causal link hasn’t been determined).

Video Games The concern with video games is that the violence is much more interactive. Kids are no longer just viewers & are instead responsible for the violence. Gaming has been identified as an addiction that can have a significant impact on functioning.

Advertising The average TV viewer in 2013 was exposed to 2000 advertisements annually. Researchers were most interested in the persuasive intent of advertising. Kids had to realise everything they see is paid & distinguish between ads & programs. Peer Pressure Studies show children between 8–12 years are more likely to listen to their peers than their parents about TV advertising. Idealisation Concern that advertising promotes an idealised lifestyle, clothing, eating standards of attractiveness & particular gender stereotypes impacting self-esteem & adequacy. Advertising is often analysed/judged by who, what, whom (who is saying what to whom?).

Factors Contributing to Bullying

Individual Factors:
-Aggressiveness.
-Lack of social skills.
-Impulsivity.
-Need to dominate others.

Family Factors:
-Lack of parental supervision.
-Inconsistent discipline.
-Exposure to domestic violence.

Peer Group Factors:
-Desire for social status.
-Conformity to group norms.
-Social isolation of the victim.

School Factors:
-Lack of clear anti-bullying policies.
-Poor supervision in playgrounds and hallways.
-School culture that tolerates bullying.

Socioeconomic Factors:
-Poverty and economic inequality.
-Lack