Understanding Race, Ethnicity, and Systemic Inequalities

Race as a Social Construct vs. Biology

• Race is fundamentally a social construct, not a biological one.

• Contrary to popular belief, there is no "race chromosome" in DNA.

• The concept of race has varied wildly across time and cultures, demonstrating its fluidity and dependence on social and historical contexts.

• This understanding helps reveal the origins of racism.

Historical Context and Evolution of Race

• Christoph Meiners (German scientist, around 1776) proposed five different racial groups based on physical appearance and ancestral geographic origin.

• Americans of European descent adopted this thinking.

• Historians suggest the idea of different races helped resolve the contradiction between the natural right to freedom and the existence of slavery.

  • By categorizing whites as distinct, they could justify denying freedom to those labeled as black and deemed fundamentally different.

• Fluid Definitions in the United States Census:

  • In 1929, certain groups were considered white.

  • The 1930 census changed this to "non-white" to limit immigration.

  • During World War II, as the US needed to increase its labor force, these groups were reclassified as white.

  • The definition of "black" varied significantly across states, ranging from one-quarter to one-sixteenth to the infamous "one-drop" (one-thirty-second) of African ancestry.

  • This meant individuals could change their racial classification simply by crossing state lines.

  • More recently, a multiracial category was added to the census, allowing Americans to identify with more than one race.

• In a 2010 survey, as many as 6.2\% of census respondents selected "some other race," reflecting the difficulty and complexity of racial categorization.

• The debate over figures like MSNBC's Karen Finney's racial identity or the President's racial label further highlights the subjective nature of race.

The Misuse of Race in Medicine

• When the medical community links race to health outcomes, it often uses race as a proxy for other factors, such as ancestral origin or shared experiences within a racialized group.

• Sickle Cell Anemia is a prime example:

  • It is linked to areas with high malaria rates, including parts of Europe and Asia, not just Africa.

  • It's not about race itself but rather geographical and environmental factors.

• The Spirometer, a medical tool for lung function, historically disadvantaged Black individuals.

  • This stems from Thomas Jefferson's flawed assertion that Africans had different lung capacities, which later justified enslavement.

  • Samuel Cartwright further propagated this by creating tools based on this faulty logic.

  • Modern spirometers, based on these historical assumptions, can still underdiagnose or misdiagnose Black patients, operating without overt discriminatory intent but perpetuating structural racism within healthcare.

Understanding Key Concepts: Race vs. Ethnicity

• Ethnicity:

  • Defined by shared characteristics like ancestry, language, nationality, and cultural heritage.

  • Reflects a sense of belonging based on cultural traits and traditions.

  • In this class, people will often be referred to by their ethnicity or cultural groups to provide a richer understanding of their differences, values, perceptions, and worldviews.

  • Examples: In the "white race" category, there are various ethnicities like Irish, Italian, Russian. Within the African diaspora, there are West African, East African, Afro-Caribbean, Afro-Latina ethnicities.

• Race:

  • A socially constructed hierarchical system that categorizes individuals based on perceived physical differences.

  • Tied to state power and institutional structures.

  • Involves the imposition of social rankings.

  • Its definition and significance vary across societies.

  • In America, perceived physical appearances often have real-time consequences for individuals and society's structure.

Hegemony and Assimilation

• Hegemony: Cultural dominance of one group over another.

  • It is an academic term for imposing one's culture as the standard or universal way of being.

• Assimilation: The process of aligning to another cultural viewpoint, often at the expense of one's native cultural heritage.

  • It can be a symptom of hegemonic influence.

  • Analogous to the concept of dislocation or off-centeredness as discussed in previous lectures, where one's own cultural values are substituted for those of a dominant culture.

  • Example: "Oreo" (black on the outside, white on the inside) describes assimilation, though the terminology is problematic.

  • Historical examples include European assimilation and the imposition of Western ideas during colonialism/imperialism.

Bias, Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism

• Bias:

  • Cognitive or thinking patterns (implicit or explicit) towards individuals based on perceived characteristics.

  • Can influence perceptions and behaviors, sometimes unconsciously.

  • Does not inherently have to be negative.

• Prejudice:

  • Preconceived notions or attitudes, primarily based on stereotypes, about individuals or groups.

  • Reflects a judgment not based on direct experience.

  • Bias turns negative here.

• Discrimination:

  • Behavior arising from prejudice, leading to unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on perceived characteristics.

  • Manifests in contexts like employment (e.g., changing names to get opportunities), education (unequal funding, resources), and housing.

  • Can apply to race, gender, sexual orientation, etc., though the class focuses on race.

• Racism:

  • A systematic framework that perpetuates social hierarchies through ideas (ideology), institutions, and practices.

  • Encompasses both individual prejudices (micro-level: personal hate, slurs, racial violence, microaggressions) and structural inequalities (macro-level: systemic racism).

  • These two levels (micro and macro) work together.

  • Connects to issues like environmental racism and red-lining.

Structural and Institutional Racism

• A "machine" of codes that creates systemic inequalities, favoring certain groups and disadvantaging others.

• Deeply embedded in the fabric of society through established norms and practices.

• Manifests in sectors like housing, education, justice, and healthcare.

• Continues to affect life chances and opportunities, often operating without overt discriminatory intent.

• Examples:

  • Justice System: The historical origins of police departments as fugitive slave patrols.

  • Education: Historical ideas that Black individuals were inferior, impacting educational access and quality.

  • These systemic biases weave an infrastructure of institutional racism.

Racial Formation

• An ongoing sociohistorical process involving the creation, transformation, and destruction of racial categories.

• Highlights that race is not a static concept but influenced by social, political, and economic contexts over time.

• The State's Role:

  • Plays a crucial role by influencing racial definitions through legislation, policymaking, and governance (e.g., the census).

  • Underscores the importance of power dynamics in shaping racial identities.

  • Whoever holds power can define and categorize race according to their needs and values.

Color-Blind Racism

• The concept of saying "I don't see race" or "I don't see color."

• While often well-intentioned, it "misses the mark" and can still be considered racist.

• It promotes neutrality and denies the significant role race plays in American society.

• By promoting the idea that everyone is treated equally, it:

  • Obscures the realities of systemic racism.

  • Dismisses the unique challenges faced by marginalized groups.

  • It's important to recognize and discuss differences and inequalities.

Whiteness vs. White People

• Whiteness:

  • Not a racial identity but a social construct or system that has historically conferred power and status.

  • Often considered the default or norm in American society, shaping perceptions of privilege and access (hegemonic influence).

  • Anyone who aligns with or plays into this system can uphold it, regardless of their own race (e.g., Black cops perpetuating violence that aligns with white supremacy).

  • It is a critique of the system, not an indictment of white people as a whole.

• White Privilege: The preferential treatment given to white people due to the system of whiteness.

• Intersectionality: (Not fully covered due to time, but mentioned as important for discussion posts and quizzes) The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group.

Key Terminology to Review

• Race

• Ethnicity

• Culture

• Bias

• Prejudice

• Discrimination

• Racism

• Structural and Institutional Racism

• Racial Formation

• Racialization

• Whiteness

• Color-blind Racism

• Intersectionality

• Xenophobia

• Hegemony

• Assimilation

Quiz Information

• The quiz will cover material from Weeks 1, 2, and 4 (Week 3 was off).

• Everything in the modules from these weeks is fair game, including readings and PowerPoint content.

• Quizzes are self-paced and taken at home.

• Study guides will only be provided for midterms and finals, not for quizzes.

• Class will still be held next week, but the only homework is the quiz; new material covered in class will not be on the upcoming quiz.