Anderson: Chapter 6+

What is the core that makes movies special?

• Montage (editing)

  • comes from the Russian School of Film, specifically Eisenstein

Continuity in Filmmaking:

Define a motion picture and shots, What becomes the challenge with these shots?

• A motion picture consists of a series of shots filmed on different days and locations. (succession of shots)

• Each roll of the camera represents a shot, and after the shooting schedule, numerous shots are created.

• The challenge in filmmaking lies in integrating these disparate shots to create a cohesive and continuous narrative.

Film makers want for a film experience to be similar Human Perceptual System was done through ……

• Filmmakers, through trial and error, construct a fictional world that, when perceived, exhibits spatial and temporal continuity.

• The interaction with the human perceptual system involves utilizing the same assumptions and cognitive procedures employed in the natural environment.

Categories of Filmic Continuity:

Explain Category 1 (what are the main tasks, elements)

• Explain Cut Transitions:

• Involves simple shot-to-shot transitions — the cut themselves

• Editor's task is to ensure smooth cuts, avoiding jump cuts and matching action

  •  change camera angle and image size at every cut to maintain screen direction and to meet the requirements for matching action

• Focus on finding the right frame to end one shot and begin the next.

  • to shoot a shot that will cut with the one immediately preceding it and then to find precisely the right place to end the first shot as well as the exact frame with which to begin the second shot (cut)

Explain Category 2: (what are the main tasks, elements)

• Orientational Relationships

• Involves sequences of shots with orientation relationships, e.g., shot reverse shots, point of view shots, over-the-shoulder shots, and eyeline matches.

• Emphasizes clarity in the physical orientation of characters to each other and their environment.

• Filmmakers adhere to specific rules for maintaining these relationships.

Explain Category 3:(what are the main tasks, elements)

• Large-Scale Relationships:

• Encompasses the broader relationships between places and events in the entire diegetic world of the motion picture.

• Allows for dramatic events to transcend time and space.

• Filmmakers use cross-cutting, flashbacks, or flash-forwards to create parallel actions and converging storylines.

The Nature of Categories (hierarchical or independent)

• Categories 1, 2, and 3 are not independent; they are hierarchical or nested.

• Category 1 is contained within Category 2, which, in turn, is contained within Category 3.

• Recognizing this nested arrangement is crucial for understanding filmic continuity.

Understanding Category 1

Shot-to-Shot Transitions (crucial for what?) (what do you want to avoid)

• Shot-to-shot transitions are crucial in filmmaking to maintain continuity and create a seamless viewing experience.

• want to avoid jump cuts (beta motion)

  •  change camera angle and image size at every cut to maintain screen direction and avoid beta motion

What verifies the continuity of the observed world?

• Proprioceptive feedback (info on body position and movement) and visual information verify the stability and continuity of the observed world.

• Proprioceptive Feedback works in conjunction with visual input to create a coherent and accurate perception of the world

Define Proprioceptive feedback (crucial role in what,

plays a crucial role in our ability to navigate and perceive the world, as well as in the experience of watching motion pictures.

Proprioceptive feedback plays a crucial role in activities such as balance, coordination, and motor control. Refers to the sensory information our body receives about its position, movement, and orientation — Spatial Awareness

Conflict between Proprioceptive feedback and visual input (when does this happen, who wins and this explains what?)

• In the context of motion pictures, there can be a potential mismatch between visual information and proprioceptive feedback. For example, if a camera in a film pans smoothly from left to right, our visual system perceives the movement, but our proprioceptive system may not experience the corresponding physical motion.

• The visual information from watching a motion picture can override the absence of proprioceptive feedback.

• Explains how our brain might perceive a motion (like a head turn) based on what is visually presented on the screen, even if our body is not physically moving.

Perception of Motion in Film through what visual system in the body? (Magno vs Parvo system) (why)

• The visual system processes motion through the Magno system (motion and detail) faster than the parvo system (form and color)

• Motion perception occurs at a basic level without inference or intellectualization.

Scientific Perception Fallacy

• The Scientific Perception Fallacy is when we mistakenly think that our everyday perceptions and understanding work the same way as scientific investigations. (use the same methods = not true)

Cessation of Existence vs. Omission

• The rule of continuity of existence Inherent in our visual system holds that objects that exist, continue to exist until they are seeing going out of existence

  • going out of existence must meet rigorous criteria (cessation) it should not be mistaken for the far more common event of merrily going out of sight — Omission (because objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight)

• Cessation of existence is a critical environmental event, different from simple occlusion or going out of sight, omission. (something Gibson talks about)

Infants: Cessation of Existence vs Continuity

• Infants may lack an understanding of the irrevocable nature of entropy = perceiving objects as potentially reappearing

  • implies that infants may not fully comprehend the idea that certain processes or changes in the world are irreversible (will think they will reappear)

• infants simply expect an object to reappear in the place where it was last seen (Infants do not lack ability to assume continuity)

• This is known as object permanence — developed in infants during the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development — By Piaget

This tells us that the perception of cessation of existence is a higher level perceptual activity while ability for continuity is more inherent, lower level perceptual activity.

Filmic Conventions for Going Out of Existence events:

• Some events, like burning or sinking, are perceived differently in the fictional world of a film.

• These events are like common themes in a specific type of film. They are used as transitions in the story, not just tricks.

• conventions = the commonly occurring elements within a certain genre of film.

Film Editing Techniques and Perception (the different types of cuts/transitions)

Filmmakers have developed conventions that align with visual system processing rules to create seamless shot transitions. — Part of Category 1: Cut Transitions

1) Fade in/Fade out

• used to connote a passage of time or to Mark the transition from one state to another

• analogous to the change from Nightfall to morning in the natural world.

• fading to black lets you know that this is a different time and place (end of scene)

  • seen in “Philadelphia story” — Klevan (1:24:14)

2) Dissolve

• going out of existence of one scene and the coming into existence of the next

• symbolizes a smooth transition between scenes

3) Straightforward cuts

• cuts or standard cuts

• the most common type of transitions

• a direct switch from one shot to another

• Used to maintain visual continuity

• Cuts between very different shots tend not to jump (images dont align to make sure there is no jump cuts - Beta motion)

4) Jump cuts

• When two shots of the same subject are edited together, but the camera position varies only slightly (when shots have same edges, orientation)

• See beta motion here — unwanted

• Creates a noticeable jump or discontinuity in the visual flow.

• violates the rule of continuity of existence

• leads to the resetting of the visual system's computation.

5) Invisible cut (used for what?, why?)

• counterintuitive

• When editing, take the first shot and let it run to the high point of the action then cut the film in the middle of the action and splice on the second shot, starting the second shot a couple of frames of action earlier than the place where the action was cut in first shot. — overlap action by two frames.

• The result is a cut between two shots that is very difficult to perceive, it is practically invisible, part of a match action cut

• It is hard to make shots look continuous

6) Match action Cut

• cuts involve changing angles still

• uses invisible cuts

• Ensures continuity and a smooth flow in action sequences

• if moving in first shot, must also be moving in second shot

What are the 3 rules within the processing system, followed by film?

Continuity of Existence:

• objects are assumed to continue to exist even when they are temporarily out of sight, until there is clear evidence of an object going out of existence

• the system resolves the incongruity by assuming  continuity of existence.

• Filmmakers adhere to this rule by ensuring that the continuity of objects and characters is maintained across different shots. (no abrupt shots)

• If we have insufficient information for self-movement either from the visual array or from proprioceptive Feedback, the system resolves the incongruity by assuming  continuity of existence.

Rigidity:

• Definition: maintaining stable and consistent relationships between objects or elements in a visual scene.

• to ensure that the spatial relationships between characters, objects, and the environment remain coherent from one shot to another.

Inclusion:

• Definition: Inclusion, in visual processing, could involve the incorporation of relevant visual elements within a frame or scene.

• crucial for providing the audience with the necessary visual information to understand the context and continuity.

• Filmmakers carefully select and include elements within the frame to guide the viewer's attention and maintain narrative coherence.

Rules for Successful Match Action Cuts:

Needed for perception of a continuous shot

1. 30° Rule: Change angle by at least 30 and image size between successive shots.

2. 180° Rule: Keep screen direction consistent by not crossing the axis of principal action. Assumption that moving objects will continue to move in the same direction unless we see them change direction

3. Cut at the Point of Greatest Action: The cut can be made just before the action or just after the action but the rule is related to the Assumption of the visual system that motion will continue in the same direction at approximately the same speed.

4. Overlap Action by Two Frames when making the splice: Prevent gaps in action presentation and override the ongoing processing of the last frames. overlap is necessary for a large body of research. (overlapping the action by approximately two frames at the cut)

5. Must complete all requirements for the Magnocellular system: The magnocellular system is particularly adept at detecting and processing motion. Completion of magnocellular system requirements ensures that the visual experience aligns with the natural functioning of the viewer's visual system.

Action processing: Masking Phenomena and Overlapping Frames:

• Masking phenomena supports the need for overlapping frames to avoid gaps in action processing.

• overlapping ensures a smooth transition between shots.

• a new shot simply overrides or masks the processing of the last couple of frames of the old shot

• cuts where the action is perfectly matched do not work very well, must instead made sure that they will be no gaps in the action presented to our visual system by simply overlapping the action by approximately two frames at the cut

Understanding Category 2

Orientational Relationships:

• focuses on orientational relationships between shots in a sequence.

• Relationships include shot-reverse-shots, point of view shots, over-the-shoulder shots, and eyeline matches.

• Understanding these shots depends on recognizing the physical orientation of characters to each other and their environment.

Viewer's Perspective and Camera Position:

• The viewer's position is aligned with the camera's position in a scene.

• Viewer's computations are based on the perspective provided by the camera's position.

• The starting point for all computations is the position of the camera (low process)

Shot Reverse Pattern (what is the purpose, what is crucial for this to work) (what are the type of shots needed for this)

• not merely a device of post-production editing, it requires careful placement of the camera

  • from over the shoulder to close up

• The Shot-Reverse Shot (SRS) is a film editing technique where the camera alternates between showing one character (or subject) and then cutting to the reverse perspective to show the reaction or response of another character.

• The primary purpose = to visually communicate a conversation or interaction between two characters

• allows filmmakers to emphasize the dynamics, emotions, and responses of characters engaged in dialogue.

• Eyeline matching is crucial in Shot-Reverse Shot sequences

1st shot = requires that they camera be placed so that they characters can be seen together in one shot and the spatial relationship is clearly established. (establishing shot)

2,3 Shot = Over the Shoulder Shots and Close ups — one of the characters and then the other followed by two or more alternating close-ups. — shows the conversation

The Role of Over-the-Shoulder Shots:

• Over-the-shoulder shots are used in conjunction with alternating close-ups to convey intimacy and provide additional perspective (information that is contained in the perspective of the over the shoulder shots.)

• Over-the-shoulder shots are essential for maintaining the illusion of continuity and spatial relationships, in short reverse pattern

Viewer's Perspective and computations within Category 2: High level or Low Level

• Viewer computations in Category 2 continuity are automatic (low level) and not high-level or inferential.

• The computations rely on information from the projective geometry inherent in lens images.

Consistency of what is needed for Shot reverse pattern (what must be avoided at all costs, how is this done)

• Close-ups in Category 2 continuity are shot from the same camera angle as over-the-shoulder shots.

• Actors are instructed not to look into the camera to maintain the diegesis and avoid breaking the conventional reverse shot or eyeline match. (holly wood rule)

• So these shots are done from the same angle to make sure that no actor is looking directly into the length of the camera ,

Definition of Eye line matching , Why is it so important in film?

• involves aligning the gaze direction of a character in one shot with the subject or point of interest in the following shot

• ensures the continuity of the visual narrative (eye line has to be perfect)

• where the actors look during movie shots

• Extremely important for social cueing

  • since it provides viewers with precise information about where characters are looking

  • We are extremely precise when it comes to gaze direction (audience will notice if they don’t have same line of sight)

  • ensures that the audience can easily follow the visual connection between characters

Eye line Matching: Application with different types of Shots (is it used or is it not)

Shot-Reverse Shot Sequences

• This technique is particularly crucial in Shot-Reverse Shot sequences

• ensure a seamless visual connection between shots, especially in dialogue scenes (commonly used for these)

• When one character speaks in the initial shot, the reverse shot should show what or whom they are looking at or reacting to.

Over-the-Shoulder Shots

• not typically used in over-the-shoulder shots

Why is Eyeline matching necessary, especially with actors busy schedules?

• All actors are rarely all present together during filming

• By aligning the eyelines in the editing process, it creates the illusion that the characters are looking at each other, even though they might have been filmed separately.

Understanding Category 3

What is Category 3 all about?

Encompasses the broader relationships between places and events in the entire diegetic world of the motion picture.

• Filmmakers use cross-cutting, flashbacks, or flash-forwards to create parallel actions and converging storylines.

• Understanding the position and significance of a specific location within a film facilitated by recognizing its place within a larger context or setting.

• to understand the whole diegetic world

Hierarchical Spatial Comprehension: Definition, compare Category 2 to Category 3 (what techniques work here)

Hierarchical spatial comprehension means understanding the layout and significance of locations in a story beyond just knowing where they are. Gasping how smaller details fit into larger structures, in layers. About the viewer recognizing patterns in how places and events are organized within the entire world of the movie.

• Hierarchical spatial comprehension go beyond Category 2 to Category 3

• Category 3 does just rely solely on the viewer's use of projective geometry inherent in Category 2

• In Category 3, it's about understanding not just where things are in relation to each other (like in Category 2), but also comprehending the entire world of the story.

• Filmmakers might use techniques like cross-cutting or flashbacks to show different parts of the story happening at the same time, helping viewers see the bigger picture.

Spatial Cognitive System and its Characteristics: (coordinated by what?)

• Humans have a specialized capacity and neurophysiological mechanism, likely coordinated by the hippocampus, enabling comprehension of spatial relationships in both movies and the real world.

• The spatial cognitive system has characteristics:

  1. Operates on a domain with a clearly nested structure — System stores information about the spatial domain capturing hierarchical structure effectively. (put small stuff into large stuff)

  2. System enables mental revisitation of places without physically returning to them.

Place Localization and connection to Hierarchical Spatial Comprehension:

• In movies, as in the world, a place can be located by its inclusion in the larger place.

• Hierarchical spatial comprehension allows for understanding places within larger contexts.

• Spatial relationships within a film rely on the hierarchical structure of spaces.

  • It suggests that understanding the position and significance of a specific location within a film is facilitated by recognizing its place within a larger context or setting.

• For example, within a film, a scene set in a room is part of a larger setting, like a house or a city.

Cross Cutting and Overall Comprehension: (this is also known as what)

• Cross cutting relies on overall comprehension of three-dimensional space, not tied to a specific visual perspective or camera position.

• involves interweaving two or more scenes or narrative strands, usually occurring simultaneously or consecutively

• employed to create suspense, build tension, and highlight the parallel or contrasting elements between different storylines.

• Cross-cutting is also known as parallel editing.

• Example: Mean Girls

The Three Filmic Continuity Categories and its Filmic Techniques/Methods (what are they trying to maintain the most)

1. Category 1: Cut Transitions Shot-to-shot transitions, simple cut sequences, focusing on maintaining continuity within individual shots. (fade in, dissolve, straightforward, jump, invisible, match action)

2. Category 2: Orientational relationships, including shot-reverse shots, point of view shots, over-the-shoulder shots, and eyeline matches, aiming for maintaining spatial coherence.

3. Category 3: Large Scale Relationships. Maintain Hierarchical spatial comprehension, providing information for comprehending the entire diegetic world, relying on the viewer's recognition of nested spatial patterns. (use cross-cutting, flashbacks, or flash-forwards to create parallel actions and converging storylines)

Structure of Films Beyond Continuity Rules, it is possible?

• Filmmakers can structure movies in ways other than the rules of continuity, but it may require indirect comprehension at the level of symbol and metaphor.

• Films not adhering to continuity rules might be comprehensible only within specific cultural or filmic conventions.

Is pictorial continuity culturally bound?

• Pictorial continuity is not culturally bound; it can be appropriated for any purpose, independent of the culture that developed it.

• It's a set of techniques and principles used in visual storytelling, seen universally.

• So, these techniques can be used by anyone, no matter their cultural background.

Shot-to-shot transitions (category 1)

30-Degree Rule:

• The 30-degree rule is a guideline in shot-to-shot transitions. It suggests changing the camera angle by at least 30 degrees between two successive shots to avoid visual disorientation and maintain spatial continuity

180-Degree Rule:

• The 180-degree rule is another crucial principle. It recommends maintaining consistent screen direction to prevent confusion about the spatial relationships between characters and objects.

Screen Direction Importance

• Shot-to-shot transitions should consider the movement and screen direction of characters. Keeping these consistent helps the audience track the flow of action within the frame.

Overlapping Action done why?

• Overlapping action involves allowing the action in one shot to continue slightly into the next shot. This overlap helps in creating a smoother transition. Due to masking phenomenon too

Relation to Rhythm and importance

• Shot-to-shot transitions contribute to the overall rhythm of a film. The pacing and timing of cuts influence the audience's emotional response and engagement.