bow module 2

Chapter 2: Understanding & Evaluating Science

• Social Environment of Researchers

  • Influences on research include:

    • The questions that are asked

    • The methods used for research

    • Who conducts the experiments

    • How results are interpreted

Science as a Way of Knowing

• Key Components

  • Systematic observation of the natural world

  • Rational interpretation of observations

  • Experimental Method

    • Vary one factor while holding others constant

    • Assume differences in outcomes are due to that single factor

    • Use of positive and negative controls

    • Assumes the natural world is stable, constant, and knowable

    • Conclusions extend beyond the experiment to the larger world

    • Prediction is a key test of scientific conclusions

Power and Limitations of Science

• Belk & Borden Example: Birth Control Pills

  • Research showed:

    • Fluctuating estrogen triggers ovulation

    • Constant estrogen suppresses ovulation

  • Resulted in production of oral contraceptives

  • Science cannot determine ethical decisions regarding birth control prescriptions

Science: Powerful but Amoral

• Limits of Science

  • Focuses on observable and measurable phenomena

  • Cannot address questions of morality, spirituality, or ethics

  • Can advise on methods but not on ethical implications

  • Importance of ELSI

    • Some funding requires attention to ethical, legal, and social issues

  • Citizen engagement in science fosters better decision-making in social issues

  • Democracy requires both scientific knowledge and alternative assessment methods

The Process of Science

• Steps in Scientific Inquiry

  • Make observations and develop hypotheses

  • Test hypotheses by attempting to disprove them

  • Peer review ensures rigor; results published contribute to collective knowledge

  • Continuous reevaluation and replication of experiments necessary

Example: Boys and Throwing

• Initial Observations

  • Boys show greater accuracy than girls in throwing baseballs

  • Adult men more likely to engage in ball sports

  • Anthropological research indicates men are more likely hunters in societies

• Hypothesis Formation

  • Hypothesis 1: Innate differences in brain coordination for throwing

  • Acknowledge alternative hypotheses exist

Testing Hypotheses with Deductive Reasoning

• Deductive Reasoning

  • Generates specific predictions based on hypotheses

  • Formulated as an "If… then..." statement

  • Example of javelin throwing test to determine differences

  • Analyze data for accuracy differences

  • Consider alternative explanations for findings

Controls in Experiments

• Controls are essential for comparison in experimental design

  • Types of Control

    • Experimental group receives treatment; control group does not

    • Blind and double-blind experiments minimize bias

  • Importance of random assignment for credibility

  • Negative controls ensure validity of positive results

  • Positive controls confirm experimental conditions are met

Evaluating Scientific Hypotheses

• Scientific Expectations

  • Cannot prove hypotheses conclusively; logic allows for unknown variables

  • Acceptance occurs when hypotheses withstand rigorous testing

  • Maintain an open mind due to evolving scientific understanding

Understanding Control Groups

• Control Group Example

  • Boys versus girls in throwing experiments raise questions about socialization

  • Difficult to isolate single variables influencing outcomes

  • Implications of findings must be critically evaluated

Ethical Considerations in Human Experimentation

• Control Limitations

  • Ideal control would require equal upbringing but is practically impossible

  • Cultural norms and socialization of boys and girls differ greatly

• Scientific disciplines involving humans face unique challenges:

  • Ethical constraints

  • Difficulty controlling all variables

Correlational Research

• Correlation vs. Causation

  • Correlation examines relationships, not causation

  • Example comparing breast cancer rates related to synthetic estrogen

  • Factors influencing correlation are complex and multi-faceted

Role of Animal Models in Human Research

• Ethics in Animal Research

  • Heavily regulated; outcomes may not always apply to humans

  • Clomiphene citrate example illustrates discrepancies between animal and human reactions

Controlled Experiments and Bias

• Potential Bias in Experiments

  • Observer and subject expectations can influence outcomes

  • Placebo effect impacts perceived effectiveness

  • Use blind experiments to balance effects of bias

Media Presentation of Science

• Critical Evaluation

  • Consider source and presentation of scientific reports

  • Evaluate how hypotheses were tested and limitations discussed

  • Investigate potential implications and societal impacts of scientific discoveries

  • Seek original research reports for informed conclusions

The Social Context of Science

• Bias in Research

  • Researchers may favor their preferred hypotheses

  • Funding influences research direction; societal norms play role

  • Example of hormone replacement therapy highlights changing views on menopausal treatments

Summary

• The scientific method is a vital tool for knowledge acquisition but not the only approach.

• Science addresses measurable questions but not ethical or moral concerns.

• It plays a significant role in society and requires human behavior understanding.

• Continuous questioning and exploration are essential in science.