Hydrocarbon Derivatives

Alcohol Hydroxyl Functional group

• Oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom

• Formula: CnH2n+OH

• Hydroxyls are often written as OH on structures and chemical formulas

• Alcohols are polar.

• In chemical reactions, alcohols often cannot leave the molecule on their own; to leave, they often become protonated to water, which is a better-leaving group. Alcohols also can become deprotonated in the presence of a strong base.

Protonation: the addition or transfer of protons to a Bronsted Lowry Base

Deprotonation: the removal or transfer of a Bronsted Lowry acid in an acid base reaction

Bronsted Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases

• also called proton theory of acids and bases

• introduced independently in 1923 by the Chemist Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martin Lowry

• states that any compound that can transfer a proton to any other compound is an acid, and the compound that accepts the proton is a base.

• proton is a nuclear particle with a unit positive electrical charge; it is represented by the symbol H+ because it constitutes the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.

Uses of Alcohols:

found in beverages, anti septics, and fuels

can be used as preservatives for specimens in science

Methanol

• “wood alcohol”

• fuel at Indianapolis 500

• common industrial solvent

• toxic dose: 100ml

Ethanol

• fermentation of sugar and starches in grains

• produces “hard liquors”

• denatured alc is used as solvent

• Gasahol: 10% alcohol in gasoline

• Toxic dose: 200ml

• 2-Propanol=”Rubbing alcohol”

Ether Functional Group

• consists of an oxygen atom forming a bridge between two different parts of a molecule

• Formula: ROR

• non polar because of the presence of an alkyl group

• more polar than alkenes. Have low chemical reactivity

Uses of Ether

• Dimethyl Ether is used as a refrigerant and as a solvent

• Diethyl ether is a common ingredient in anesthesia. Common solvent for oils , resins, etc.

• Ether is used along with petrol as a motor fuel

• Phenyl ether can be used as a heat transfer medium

Aldehyde Functional Group

• made up of carbon and oxygen double bonded together

• Formula: R-COH

Uses of Aldehyde

• Formaldehyde is used for preservation of biological specimen, embalming, etc.

• used for drug testing and photography

• can be used in perfumes, dyes, cosmetic products, production of acetic acid

Ketone Functional Group

• a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom that appears as a bridge

• carbonyl functional group

• Formula R-COR

Uses of Ketone

• acetone. used as a nail paint thinner

Carboxylic Acid Functional Group

• carboxyl functional group

• substituent R is a hydrogen atom

• Formula: R-COOH

Used as precursors to form other compounds such as esters, aldehydes, and ketones.

used in the production of polymers, pharmaceutical, solvent, and food additives

Important Acids:

• Acetic acid is in vinegar and other foods

• used industrially as solvent, catalyst, and reagent for synthesis

• fatty acids from fats and oils.

Ester Functional Group

• consisting of a carbonyl group connected to an ether group.

• Formula: RCOOR

• more polar than ethers. more volatile than carboxylic acids

• soluble in water

Uses of Ester:

• Fragrance and Flavor

• known for their pleasant fruity or floral odor

• scents in essential oils

• medicine: asthma and leprosy

• antioxidants

• natural flavorings

• food and drug preservatives

Amine Functional Group

• derivatives of ammonia. where one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by an alkyl or aryl functional group.

• amines are found everywhere

• used for gas treatment such as removing co2 from combustion gases

• NH3

Dopamine=neurotransmitters

epinephrine=adrenaline

histamin-dilates blood cells

Amide Functional Group

-combination of carbonyl and amine

Thiol Functional Group

• similar to hydroxyl group except the oxygen atom in the hydroxyl group is a sulfur atom.

• also known as sulfhydryl functional group.

• Formula: -SH

Uses of Thiol Group:

• Covid 19 treatment

• catheters and vascular stents

• skunk smell

• many thiols resemble the scent of onions and garlic

Phenyl Functional Group

• benzene ring where one hydrogen atom is replaced by the R substituent group.

• often denoted by the abbreviation Ph in structures in formulas

• have formula: C6H5

VOLCANOES

Volcano

• A hill, mountain, or fissure from which molten rocks, hot gasses and ashes are ejected.

• Crater formed by the removal of pre-existing materials, or a hill, or a mountain formed from the accumulation of ejected materials.

Volcanism

♡It happens when underground molten rocks called magma find a path through the lithosphere

♡Lithosphere is Earth's rigid outer part, made up of crust and upper mantle

Why does magma rise to the Earth's surface

・❥・Since molten rocks are less dense thwn the surrounding solid rocks they have a natural tendency to rise

・❥・ A magma chamber may be squeezed by tectonic forces, creating pressure that pushes the magma upwards

Magma

✎ It is an important material in volcanism

✎The type of magma ejected onto the Earth’s surface influences both the formation and eruption of volcanoes

Properties of magma

✿Viscosity

• It is the resistance of a fluid to flow.

• The more viscous a material is, the greater its resistance to flow.

• High-viscosity magma flows more slowly than low-viscosity magma does.

✿Content

• It is the small quantities of volatile elements or compounds where magma’s viscosity depends on.(Silica)

TYPES OF MAGMA

80% of these volcanoes are formed through Convergent Boundaries

15% are formed by Divergent Boundaries

5% are formed by hotspots

Convergent boundaries have plates that move toward each other

Divergent boundaries have plates that move away from each other

a hotspot is an area of the Earth's mantle from which hot plumes rise upward, forming volcanoes on the overlying crust.

Three different types of volcanoes:

Stratovolcano or Composite Volcano:

• Produced when lava of andesitic composition flows out over a long time.

• Ejects pyroclastic materials that fall near the summit. This builds a steep-sided mound of cinders. 

• The mount is built of altering layers of lava and pyroclastic materials

  example: Mt. Mayon, Mt. Pinatubo

Cindercone Volcanoes

• Built from ejected lava fragments

• Mainly composed of tephra and cinders.

• They are small, 300 m high, and are formed near or inside large volcanoes. 

• The most abundant type of volcano.

• ex: Smith Volcano

Tephra-airborne pyroclastic material ejected in an eruption

Fumarole-openings in the Earth’s surface that emits steam

Shield Volcano

• Formed by basaltic lava flow.

• Since basaltic lava is free to flow, the volcanoes formed have very wide base and are slightly domed.

• ex: Mauna Loa(Hawaii)

  Parts of a Volcano:

• Vent-central opening.

• craters-circular depression connected to the vent

• conduit-passage in the volcano where magma passes through

• fumaroles-secondary vents emits steam and gases

• caldera- larger depressions. believed to happen when the summit(peak) of a volcano collapses

• Magma Chamber-large pool of magma beneath the Earth’s surface

  
  

• PHIVOLCS: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology

Active Volcanoes:

• has erupted within 600-10k years ago

• ex: Mt. Mayon, Mt. Bulusan

Inactive Volcanoes:

• no record of eruption

• some may erupt with little to no warning

• ex: Mt. Batulao, Alligator Lake

Volcanic Materials

Pyroclastic flow

• Fast movement of a turbulent mass of fragmental volcanic materials(ash, volcanic materials). Can reach more than 60 mph

Lava flow

• Stream-like flow of incandescent, molten rock materials erupted 

  from a volcano.

Ash fall

• Shower of grained volcanic materials and other airborne volcanic materials from an eruption

• can cause respiratory problems if inhaled for long durations of time

Lahar

• Rapid-flow of a mixture of volcanic materials and water, usually generated
  along river channels by extreme rainfall.

Volcanic gases are harmful to the health because of the different chemicals that come out of it in an eruption

Benefits:

• sources of minerals and building materials

• beneficial to agriculture

• geothermal energy

Climate Change

Weather

• changes in the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place over a short period of time.

Climate

• average weather of a region over a several years

PAGASA-Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

Climatology

• the study of atmosphere and weather

Factors affecting weather

Atmospheric temperature

• describes how cold or hot the surrounding air in a place is

Atmospheric pressure

• the force per unit area exerted by air due to its weight

Wind

• the natural movement of air in the atmosphere caused by variations in air pressure

• wind speed is the measure of how fast air is moving

• wind direction describes where wind originated and the direction it is blowing

Precipitation

• condensed water vapor that falls to Earth’s surface

Relative Humidity

• indicates the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

Factors affecting climate

Latitude

• distance from the equator. It is horizontal

Altitude

• vertical elevation or distance above sea level. As Altitude increases, temperature decreases

Distance from the sea

• distance affects climate. Coastal areas are colder

Ocean Current Circulation

• redistributes large amounts of heat all over the earth through ocean currents and deep ocean tunnels

Prevailing winds

• it is affected by the dominant wind system or prevailing winds. Moves in 1 direction

Topography

• arrangement of the surface features of a place.

• mountains and volcanoes act as natural barriers to prevent air from passing through

Global Climate Phenomena

Global Warming

• both a natural and human-induced increase in the average global climates

• linked to an increase in carbon dioxide

Types of climates:

• Tropical - Hot and humid. 2 seasons. near the equator(Philippines)

• arid/desert - dry areas. rarely experiences rainfall(ex: Sahara Desert)

• temperate - normal temperature. 4 seasons(America, Germany, Japan)

• continental - Cold winters hot summers. Inland(Sweden, Russia)

• polar/alpine - freezing areas of the Earth(ex: North, South Pole)

Stars and Constellations

Universe

• made up of anything in space

• was created over 13 billion years ago

• made up of thousands of different galaxies

Stars

• a large sphere of glowing dust and gases such as helium and hydrogen. The sun is a medium sized star.

• they are formed when spinning balls of gas form inside large clouds of dust and gas

• twinkle because light has to travel through Earth’s atmosphere. The light bends as it travels from star to Earth

• Blue stars are the hottest, red stars are the coolest

The milky way

• composed of billions of stars bound by gravity

• large spiral galaxy that holds over 100 billions stars. has spiral arms and bright central bulge called nucleus(flat disk)

• its disk is about 100k light years wide and 10k light years thick at the nucleus

• a member of a cluster of about 25 galaxies known as the Local group

Astronomy

• scientific study of everything in outer space

• studies stars and galaxies

Astrology

• based on the belief that the location of certain stars can predict the future.

Constellations

• a group of stars that form a pattern or figure

• the north star or “Polaris” is located directly above the North Pole. It appears in the same place every night all year long.

• The Southern Hemisphere has 4 stars called the “Southern Cross”

• ex: Orion, Ursa Minor, Ursa Major

• Most stars rise in the east and set in the west during the night.

Celestial Sphere

• an imaginary sphere of infinite radius with Earth at its center

Zenith

• the point directly above you

Meridian

• imaginary semi circle stretching from your horizon due south, through zenith, and due north

Asterism

• a part of constellations but they aren’t constellations themselves

• ex: Big Dipper

Orion the Hunter

• named after a greek hunter.

• it is one of the largest groups of stars in the sky

• Taurus in the Northern Hemisphere. directly above Orion. Saw as a bull

Star Chart

• a map of stars in the night sky

Projectile Motion

Law of Acceleration(2nd law)

force = mass x acceleration

Vector

-magnitude and direction

Scalar

-magnitude

Acceleration

• the rate of change in velocity with time. It is a vector quantity

Circular motion

• moves in a circle

• If in circular motion, your direction of motion is constantly changing

Trajectory - it is the curved path followed by the projectile

Uniform Acceleration Motion(UAM)

• a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes

• the value of the acceleration is constant. It does not change. The velocity changes at a constant rate.

• An object with 0 acceleration is said to be in uniform motion

• the vertical acceleration due to gravity is -9.8m²

• objects at freefall also exhibit UAM.

Projectile Motion

• combination of vertical motion(freefall) and horizontal motion(Uniform motion)

Horizontal Motion

• x component

• neglects air resistance

• constant horizontal velocity

• horizontal distance is defined as range(R or dx)

Vertical Motion

• force of gravity

• g=ay=ag or g =-9.8m/s²

• vertical velocity is represented by vy is not constant

• we call the vertical distance as height(h or dy)

Vx-horizontal velocity

Vix-initial horizontal velocity

Ax-horizontal acceleration

dx-range or horizontal distance

Vy-vertical velocity

Viy-initial vertical velocity

Ay-vertical acceleration

dy-vertical distance or height

Key components

θ-Initial Launch angle(theta)

T-time of flight

d- displacement

g- gravity

Projectile calculations

For projectiles launched horizontally:

Horizontal Distance

d=v(t)

Horizontal velocity

Vf= Vi+At

For projectiles launched vertically:

Vertical Distance

d=Vit+1/2 gt²

Vertical velocity

Vf=Vi+gt

Three common kinematic equations(horizontal motion)

x=Vix x t + 0.5 x Ax x t²

Vfx=Vix + Ax x t

Vfx²=Vix² + 2 x Ax x X

Three common kinematic equations(Vertical Motion)

y= Viy x t +0.5 x Ay x t²

Vfy= Viy + Ay x t

Vfy²= Viy² +2 x Ay x y

Angle Launched Projectile

• objects projected at an angle to the horizontal

• an object is projected from rest at an upward angle θ

• Its initial velocity can be resolved with 2 components

• the maximum range can be achieved when launched at 45 degrees

Formulas:

-