AP World

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry (1200-1450)

Song Dynasty: Methods of State Building and Maintenance

Confucianism & Neo-Confucianism

• Confucianism: A philosophy central to Chinese culture, emphasizing a hierarchical society.

  • Hierarchy: Prescribed orders within society, e.g., citizens submit to the state, juniors to elders.

  • Filial Piety: Children's obedience and honor towards parents and ancestors.

• Neo-Confucianism: Revival and modification of Confucianism, aiming to purge Buddhist influences.

Imperial Bureaucracy Expansion

• Bureaucracy: A government entity executing the will of the emperor, arranged hierarchically.

• Civil Service Examination: Testing eligible men on Confucian classics for bureaucratic positions, theoretically open to all socioeconomic statuses but realistically favoring the wealthy.

Societal Structure and Women’s Roles

• Women were relegated to subordinate positions, losing legal rights and facing social restrictions.

  • Legal Rights: Property ownership transferred to husbands; limited rights to remarry.

  • Social Restrictions: Limited access to education; practice of foot binding.

Economic Development in Song China

• Transition to a commercialized economy, marked by a significant increase in goods production and trade.

• Key Traded Goods: Porcelain and silk.

• Agricultural Innovations: Introduction of Champa rice leading to a population boom.

  • Characteristics of Champa Rice: Early maturation, drought resistance, multiple harvests per year.

• Innovations in Transportation: Facilitating the growth of the economy.

Influence on Neighboring Regions

• Korea, Japan, Vietnam: Adoption of Chinese traditions, e.g., bureaucratic systems and Buddhism.

Buddhism’s Role 

• Origin: India, with core teachings centered on the Four Noble Truths and the path to Nirvana.

Grand Canal and Song China

• Expansion of the Grand Canal enhanced trade and communication across China.

• Song China was prosperous, indicating a strong and efficient period of governance and economic activity.

Understanding Dar al-Islam

• Dar al-Islam translates to "the house of Islam," referring to regions where Islam was the foundational civilizational guide.

• Included diverse areas, marking the widespread influence of Islam.

• “Dar al-Islam: Areas under Islamic rule, characterized by the prevalence of Islamic culture, politics, and belief systems.”

Coexistence of Religions within Islamic Territories

• Apart from Islam, Judaism and Christianity were also practiced.

• Judaism: Centered on the teachings of the Torah and the Hebrew Bible.

• Christianity: Focused on the teachings and life of Jesus Christ.

• Monotheism was a common thread, differentiating these traditions from polytheistic religions like Hinduism.

Transition of Power in the Muslim World

• Post-1200, the Abbasid Caliphate's influence waned, making room for new Islamic regimes led by ethnic Turks.

• Notable entities include the Seljuk Empire, Mamluk Sultanate, and Delhi Sultanate. For illustration:

  • Seljuk Empire: Established by Turkic pastoralists, eventually overshadowing the Abbasids.

Cultural and Scientific Advancements

• Innovations include the work of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in mathematics and trigonometry.

• Preservation and Translation of ancient Greek works into Arabic, especially during the Abbasid Caliphate's Golden Age.

Expansion of Muslim Rule

• Military Conquests: Establishment of new Muslim dominions.

• Trade Routes facilitated by Muslim merchants enhanced integration and influence across Afro-Eurasia.

• Sufi Missionaries: Played a critical role in spreading Islam through mystical, adaptable approaches.

Cultural and Religious Dynamics in South and Southeast Asia

• Dominant Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam shaped societal frameworks.

  • In South Asia, Islamic rule led to Islam's prominence, especially with the Delhi Sultanate.

• “Bhakti Movement: Emphasized devotion to a single Hindu deity, challenging social hierarchies.”

South Asia

• Delhi Sultanate: Struggled to impose Muslim State on a majority Hindu population.

• Rajput Kingdoms: Hindu kingdoms that resisted Muslim rule.

• Vijayanagara Empire: Hindu counter-empire to Muslim rule in the south.

Southeast Asia

• Majapahit Kingdom: A powerful Buddhist kingdom in Southeast Asia.

  • Influence: Controlled sea routes for trade, not predominantly through naval power.

  • Decline: Began with China supporting the trading rival, Sultanate of Malacca.

The Khmer Empire

• Foundation: Initially a Hindu Kingdom.

• Religious Conversion: Leadership converted to Buddhism.

• Angkor Wat:

  • Initial Structure: Magnificent Hindu temple.

  • Post Conversion: Added many Buddhist elements without removing Hindu elements, symbolizing religious continuity and change.

The Aztec Empire

• Foundation: Founded in 1345 by the Mexica people.

• Size: Enormous empire with the capital at Tenochtitlan, the largest city in the Americas pre-Europeans.

• Alliance and Expansion: Entered an alliance with two other states in 1428, adopting an aggressive expansion program.

• Administration:

  • Elaborate system of tribute states.

  • Conquered peoples provided labor and goods as tribute.

  • Enslaved individuals from conquered regions significant in religion for human sacrifice.

The Inca Empire

• Location: Stretched across the Andean mountain range.

• Administration:

• Highly centralized with an elaborate bureaucracy.

• Incorporated older Indian society's land and languages.

• Introduced the Mit'a system requiring labor on state projects from conquered peoples.

Mississippian Culture

• Location: Mississippi River Valley.

• Agriculture: Focused on due to fertile soil.

• State Building: Large towns with monumental mounds, with Cahokia being notable for its large burial mounds.

Swahili Civilization

• Characteristics:

  • Cities organized around commerce on the East African coast.

  • Politically independent cities sharing a social hierarchy with a merchant elite at the top.

  • Language: Swahili, a hybrid of indigenous African Bantu languages and Arabic.

West African Empires

• Includes Ghana, Mali, Songhai Empire, etc.

• Trade: Growth driven, leading to the adoption of Islam by elite members.

• House of Kingdoms: City-states organized through trade, not centralized empires.

Great Zimbabwe

• Economic Basis: Initially on farming and cattle herding, later on gold.

• Religion: Maintained indigenous shamanistic religion despite trade expansions.

The Kingdom of Ethiopia

• Economic Basis: Initially on farming and cattle herding, later on gold.

• Religion: Maintained indigenous shamanistic religion despite trade expansions.

European Belief Systems

• Dichotomy: Eastern Orthodox (Byzantine Empire, Kievan Rus) vs. Roman Catholicism (Western Europe).

• Social and Political Influence: Significantly shaped by the affiliated branch of Christianity

State Building in Europe

• Political Organization: Decentralized, with feudalism as the main socio-political and economic order.

• “Feudalism: A system where Lords and Kings gained allegiance from lesser Lords in exchange for land and military service.”

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange (1200-1450)

3 Major Networks

• The Silk Roads

• The Indian Ocean Network

• The Trans-Saharan Trade Route

General Developments

The Silk Roads

• The Silk Roads stretched across Eurasia, and mainly luxury goods were traded along these routes. The big ones to remember are Chinese silk and porcelain.

Innovations that Facilitated Expansion

Features of the Silk Roads

• Luxury Goods: Merchants specialized in trading luxury goods due to the expense and arduousness of travel.

• Money Economies: The development of paper money facilitated trade, making it easier and more secure.

• Credit Systems: New forms of credit, such as the "flying money system," allowed for easier transactions.

• Trading Cities: The rise of powerful trading cities, such as Cashar, which grew and flourished along these routes.

The Indian Ocean Network

• The Indian Ocean Network existed for centuries before 1200, but during this period, the scope of these routes expanded significantly.

Innovations that Facilitated Expansion

Features of the Indian Ocean Network

• Bulk Goods: A large bulk of what was traded along these routes included more common goods like textiles and spices.

• Maritime Trade: The hull of a ship could hold way more cargo than the back of a camel.

• Swahili City States: A collection of independent city-states along Africa's East Coast that acted as brokers for goods originating from the African interior.

• Diasporic Communities: Settlements of ethnic people in a location other than their homeland, leading to intermarriage and the spread of Islam.

Transfer of Religion or Belief Systems

• The transfer of religion or belief systems across networks was a significant cultural consequence.

• One example is the spread of Buddhism from South Asia to China via the Silk Roads, carried by merchants and missionaries.

Literary and Artistic Transfers

• Another cultural consequence was the significant literary and artistic transfers across the world.

• For example, Islamic scholars in Baghdad's House of Wisdom translated Greek and Roman Classics into Arabic and made extensive commentaries on them, including their own developments in philosophy and medical practices.

• These works were then transferred to Europe, where they created the basis for a cultural awakening known as the Renaissance.

Transfer of Scientific and Technological Innovations

• The transfer of scientific and technological innovations was also a significant cultural consequence.

• One of the most significant transfers was gunpowder, invented in China but spread to Muslim empires and later Eastern European states through networks of exchange.

• The harnessing of gunpowder would fundamentally alter the balance of power across the world.

Rise and Fall of Cities

• The rise and fall of cities was another cultural consequence of increased connectivity.

• A good example of the rise of cities is Hangzhou in China, situated at one end of China's Grand Canal, which facilitated all kinds of trade and led to increasing wealth and urbanization.

• Other cities, however, did not fare as well, such as Baghdad, which was destroyed by Mongol armies in 1258.

Travelers and Their Accounts

• Increased interconnectivity also facilitated travelers who wrote about their experiences.

• One notable example is Ibn Battuta, a young Muslim scholar from Morocco who traveled all over Dar Al Islam and wrote detailed notes about the places he visited, people he met, and cultures he encountered.

Environmental Consequences

Transfer of Crops

• The transfer of crops over networks of exchange was an environmental consequence of increased connectivity.

• An example is Champa rice, introduced to China via the Champa Kingdom as part of the tribute system, which produced more food for China's growing population and led to further population growth.

Transfer of Diseases

• The transfer of diseases was another environmental consequence of increased connectivity.

• One of the most significant examples is the Bubonic plague, which erupted in China in 1331 and spread along trading routes, killing vast swaths of the population in the Middle East and Europe.

The Mongol Empire

• The Mongol Empire played a significant role in facilitating connections through trade networks.

• The Mongols established the largest land-based empire of all time, replacing powerful empires across Eurasia.

• Under Mongol rule, networks of exchange increased significantly, as they encouraged international trade and extracted great wealth as facilitators of commerce.

• The Mongols also facilitated an unprecedented increase in communication and cooperation across their empire, leading to significant technological and cultural transfers.

• “The Pax Mongolica, or the peace of the Mongols, was a period of unprecedented connectivity and exchange across the Eurasian world.”

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires(1450-1750)

• Definition: A land-based empire is an empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings.

Expansion and Administration of Land-Based Empires

• “Legitimization of Power: The methods a ruler uses to establish their authority. Consolidation of Power: The methods used to transfer power from other groups to themselves.”

Four Major Land-Based Empires:

Ottoman Empire

• Founded in the 14th century

• Expanded rapidly with gunpowder weapons

• Controlled much of Southwestern Europe and Anatolia by the 15th century

• Conquered Constantinople in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul

• Janissaries: Elite fighting force composed of enslaved Christians converted to Islam

Safavid Empire

• Founded in the 16th century

• Expanded rapidly with gunpowder weapons

• Established an enslaved army of Christians from conquered regions in the Caucasus region

• Sha Abbas: Ruler who built up the Safavid military, including the adoption of gunpowder weapons

Mughal Empire

• Founded in the 16th century

• Expanded rapidly with gunpowder weapons 

• Established a diverse and tolerant administration under Akbar, who was tolerant of all belief systems 

• Babar: Founder who led campaigns against the Delhi Sultanate and established Mugal rule in South Asia

Ching (Manchu) Empire

• Founded in the 17th century

• Established by the Manchu people, who were ethnically different from their subjects

• Expanded with gunpowder weapons and leg conquests

• Ming Dynasty: Predecessor dynasty that was ethnically Han (Chinese)

Comparison of the Empires

• All were land-based and expanded rapidly during this period

• All used gunpowder to achieve expansion

• Both the Qing and Mugal were ethnically different from their subjects

• Both the Safavid and Ottoman were Muslim, but one was Shia while the other was Sunni

Conflicts Between Empires

• Safavid-Mughal Conflict: A series of wars fought over territory in what is today Afghanistan, with a religious element due to the Shia-Sunni divide

Administering Empires

Rulers administered their empires in different ways:

• Bureaucracy: Rulers used bureaucracies to maintain control of their empires. For example, the Ottomans used the devshirme system to staff their bureaucracy with highly trained individuals.

• Military Professionals: Rulers developed military professionals to maintain control of their empires. For example, the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire.

• Religious Ideas, Art, and Monumental Architecture: Rulers used religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their power. For example, European monarchs used the Divine Right of Kings to legitimize their power.

Divine Rights of Kings: “The idea that monarchs were God's representative on earth, thus legitimizing their authority.”

Examples of Rulers and Empires

Tax Collection Systems

Rulers used different ways to collect taxes:

• Zamindar System (Mughal Empire): Elite landowners were granted authority to tax peasants on behalf of the imperial government.

• Tax Farming System (Ottoman Empire): The right to tax subjects was awarded to the highest bidder.

• Tribute Lists (Aztec Empire): Conquered regions were required to send goods to the imperial seat.

Belief Systems

Christianity in Europe

• The Catholic Church was plagued with corruption, including simony (buying one's way into positions of ecclesiastical power).

• The sale of indulgences (forgiveness of sins in exchange for money) financed the Church's massive building projects.

• Martin Luther's 95 Theses (1517) sparked the Protestant Reformation.

• The Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent, cleaning up corruption and reaffirming their doctrine.

Islam

• Shia-Sunni Split: Political rivalries intensified the split between Shia and Sunni Muslims, particularly after Shah Ismail declared the Safavid Empire would adhere to Shia Islam.

• Sikhism in South Asia: A blend of Hindu and Islamic doctrines, retaining beliefs like one God and the cycle of reincarnation, but discarding gender hierarchies and the caste system.

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnection (1450-1750)

Causes of European Expansion

Technological

• European adoption and innovation of Maritime technology

Adoption of:

• Magnetic compass (from China)

• Astrolabe (from ancient Greece and Arab world)

• Lateen sail (from Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean)

Innovations:

• Ship building (e.g., Portuguese Caravel)

• Improvement of regional wind patterns (Atlantic and Indian Oceans)

Political

• Growth of state power

  • Centralization of power led to increased control over economic decisions

  • Monarchs played a significant role in economic decisions, especially inter-regional trade

Economic

• Mercantilism; “A state-driven economic system that characterized Imperial European States during this period." Goal: to get as much of the world's wealth (gold and silver) as possible Measured wealth in gold and silver, with a fixed amount available State goal: maintain a favorable balance of trade (exports > imports)”

• Joint-stock company: “A limited liability business, often chartered by the state, funded by private investors Example: Dutch East India Company (VOC) States relied on merchants to expand influence, while merchants relied on states for monopolies on trade regions”

Key Players

Portugal

Prince Henry the Navigator

• Brought together sailors, map makers, and ship builders to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa

• Established a trading post empire around Africa and the Indian Ocean

• Innovative ship designs (e.g., Caravel)

• Fast ships with cannons enabled control of trade in the region

Spain

Christopher Columbus 

• Sponsored by the Spanish Crown to find a western route to Asia

• Discovered the New World, leading to Spanish colonization

• Established a vast world of colonization, not just trading posts

• Opened the transatlantic trade, which became more prosperous than the Indian Ocean trade

The Big Three of European Exploration

• France: Sponsored westward expeditions to find a North Atlantic sea route to Asia, established a presence in Canada, and accessed the lucrative fur trade with indigenous peoples.

• England: Sponsored exploration into the Americas after Queen Elizabeth I rose to power, established England's first colony on Roanoke Island, and later established Jamestown in Virginia.

• The Dutch: Gained independence from Spain, became the most prosperous state in Europe, and challenged Spanish and Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean trade.

The Columbian Exchange

• The transfer of new diseases, food plants, and animals between the eastern and western hemispheres.

Transfer of Disease 

• Why it was a big deal: Folks throughout Afro-Eurasia had developed immunities to diseases, but indigenous peoples of the Americas had not, leading to devastating consequences.

• Diseases introduced by Europeans:

  • Smallpox

  • Measles

  • Malaria

• Effects on indigenous populations: Cut some populations in half, and in some cases, killed 90% of those infected.

Transfer of Food and Plants

• European settlers introduced:

  • Wheat

  • Olives

  • Grapes

• Indigenous Americans introduced:

  • Maize

  • Potatoes

• Effects on populations:

  • Varied diets, increasing lifespans, and contributing to a population explosion after 1700.

Transfer of Animals

• European introduction:

  • Pigs

  • Sheep

  • Cattle

  • Horses

• Effects on indigenous populations:

  • Enabled Plains peoples to hunt buffalo more effectively, better feeding their populations.

Resistance to European Imperialism

Asian States

Tokugawa Japan:

• Initially open to trade with Europeans, but later suppressed Christianity and isolated itself from European commerce.

European States

The Fronde (France, 1648)

• Series of rebellions against the monarchy's increased taxation and power.

Enslaved Africans

Maroon Societies

• Communities of runaway slaves in the Caribbean and Brazil.

• Example: Queen Nanny, leader of a Maroon society in Jamaica, led a successful rebellion against colonial troops, securing a treaty recognizing their freedom in 1738.

African States and Maritime Empires

• African states participated in maritime trading networks, connecting them to global economic linkages.

Examples:

• Asante Empire (West Africa): Provided gold, ivory, and enslaved people to European traders, making them rich and enabling military expansion and consolidation of power.

• Kingdom of the Congo (Southern Africa): Made strong diplomatic ties with the Portuguese, providing gold, copper, and enslaved people, and converting to Christianity to facilitate trade.

Key Players

Continuity in Trade:

• The Gujarati merchants increased the power and wealth of the Mugal Empire through their ongoing participation in the Indian Ocean trade.

• Despite growing European dominance, overland routes like the Silk Roads were still almost entirely controlled by various Asian land-based powers.

• Peasant and artisan labor continued and even intensified in many regions as demand for food and consumer goods increased.

The Atlantic System

• The opening of the Atlantic system was a completely new development, made possible by Columbus's voyage. This system made Europeans "stupid rich and powerful" due to the movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.

Goods:

• Sugar was king, with colonial plantations in the Caribbean specializing in the growth of sugar cane, which was exported across the Atlantic to satisfy European demand.

• Silver was also a highly valued commodity, with the Spanish mining it in the Americas and transferring it back to the Royal coffers.

Labor:

• Coerced labor, including forced indigenous labor, indentured servitude, and African slavery, was used to fuel the Atlantic system.

• Enslaved Africans made up the bulk of the imperial labor force in the Americas.

Changes and Continuities in Labor Systems

The Americas

• The economies established in the Americas by Europeans were largely based on agriculture and mining.

• Existing labor systems, such as the Mita system, were continued, but with significant changes.

• Chatt slavery, a race-based and hereditary system, was introduced, with devastating consequences for indigenous populations.

• Mita System: “A system developed and deployed by the Inca Empire, where subjects were required to provide labor on state projects for a certain number of days per year.”

• Chatt Slavery: “A kind of slavery in which the purchaser has total ownership over the enslaved person, with the main economic engine of imperial empires in the Americas being difficult agricultural work and mining.”

Other Labor Systems:

• Indentured servitude: A system in which a laborer signs a contract binding them to a particular work for a period of time, usually seven years, in exchange for food and protection.

• Encomienda system: A system used by the Spanish to divide indigenous Americans among Spanish settlers, who were then forced to provide labor in exchange for food and protection.

• Hacienda system: A system in which indigenous laborers were forced to work on large plantations known as haciendas, with similarities to the encomienda system but centered on land ownership.

Belief Systems

The contact between the New and Old Worlds created the occasion for changes in belief systems, with a focus on Christianity in the Americas.

• Missionaries: Catholic missionaries, many of whom were Jesuits, were sent to convert indigenous populations to Christianity.

• Conversion and Syncretism: While there was conversion to Christianity, it was not always a tidy process, with some indigenous groups outwardly adopting Christianity but privately continuing to practice their own religious beliefs. This led to a blending of Christian beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs and practices, known as religious syncretism.

Three categories of change in social hierarchies occurred during this period:

Ethnic and Religious Diversity

• Spain and Portugal 

  • Differing treatment of Jews

  • Expulsion of Jews from Spain (1492) and Portugal (1497)

• Ottoman Empire 

• Relative tolerance towards Jews

• Immigrants contributed to economic and cultural environment

Rise of New Political Elites

The Americas 

• Casta System Definition: A social hierarchy organized by race and ancestry, imposed by Spanish colonizers

  • Erased cultural complexity, prioritized Spanish blood

  • Native peoples were previously part of various linguistic and cultural groups

China

• Transition from Ming to Qing dynasty

• Qing established by non-Chinese people (Manchu)

• Reserved bureaucratic positions for ethnically Manchu people, excluding ethnically Han people

Struggles of Existing Elites

Russia

• Elite members of aristocratic landowning class (boiars) exerted significant influence

• Absolutist Peter the Great rose to power, took power from boiars, and abolished their rank

• Required bureaucratic employment to serve the state directly

Unit 5: Revolutions (1750-1900)

• Enlightenment: an intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, like rationalist and empiricist approaches to the natural and human world. If 14th c. scientists could figure out the natural world in the Scientific Revolution, then why couldn’t 18th century philosophers figure out the human world?

Enlightenment Challenging the Status Quo (the way things had been)

• It challenged the role of religion in public life by questioning the authority of a higher power.

• There were new ways of thinking about the importance of the Individual.

• People started to think that there were natural rights—or rights that all humans are born with.

• The concept of the Social Contract encouraged people to overthrow a tyrannical government.

• The belief in popular sovereignty meant that the power to rule should belong to the people.

• Democracy was a system where all people could participate in government.

• And liberalism was an ideology that emphasized protection of civil rights, representative government, protection of private property and free-market trade.

Effects of the Enlightenment 

On Participation in Government

• The expansion of suffrage (the right to vote) after the American Revolution. While only white land-owning males could vote, eventually more people were included before 1900. First all white males, then black males.

On Women

• The feminist movement began with a call for women’s suffrage and equality. This can be seen in the work of French activist Olympe de Gouges, who wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, which criticized the new French Constitution for not including women’s rights.

On Coerced Labor

• The idea of natural rights and liberty led to the abolition of slavery in the Americas and serfdom in Russia.

Nationalism

• It can describe a sense of commonality among people based on things like a shared language, religious, social customs, etc. But it also includes a shared vision for the future, and the group is often defined by having a common enemy.

Leaders Using Nationalism

• Some used it to convince people to start a revolution to create their own country. Others added nationalist education into schools—glorifying the nation and military service—and used it to create a sense of unity and pride. An example is the Russian empire, which started to demand that the Russian language be spoken by all of the diverse peoples in its empire.

Growing Discontent With Monarchist and Imperial Rule

Example: Muhammad Ali, the leader of the Ottoman state of Egypt, was frustrated with the corruption and internal conflicts of the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, he acted independently and took steps towards industrialization on his own, opening textile and weapons factories.

Cause of the American Revolution

• The twelve American colonies were unhappy with the way they were being ruled by Britain (discontent with monarchist and imperial rule).

American Revolution

• Declaration of Independence connection to enlightenment → The Declaration discusses the social contract and popular sovereignty.

•  They set up a democratic-republic and became a model and inspiration for others to overthrow imperial and monarchist rule.

Haitian Revolution

• Haiti was a prosperous French colony. The ideas of the French Revolution became known there and, led by Toussaint Louverture, the enslaved population on the island rose up.

Effects:

• The enslaved Haitians defeated the French and created the second republic, but it was the first black government in the western hemisphere. It is considered the only truly successful large-scale slave rebellion in the world.

Causes:

• Spanish and Portuguese colonies throughout Central and South America were influenced by Enlightenment ideas and resented the increasing control by their imperial parents. In 1808 when Napoleon invaded Spain and the king of Portugal was deposed it led to instability in the colonies and the revolutions began.

Nationalist Movements and Unification

Latin American Revolution

Letter from Jamaica by Simon Bolivar

• In it, Simon Bolivar wrote about his vision for Latin American Independence. He called on Latin Americans to unite in the cause for overthrowing Spanish colonial dominance. 

Effects:

• Through many long wars, the colonies eventually won their independence and many formed republican governments.

Propaganda Movement in the Philippines

• This was another nationalist movement, but not a revolution. The Philippines were a Spanish colony. Many Filipinos studied Enlightenment ideas and nationalist frameworks in Europe and began publishing tons of pamphlets and books expressing a desire to be involved in the political process. Eventually it led to the Philippine Revolution near the end of the 19th c.

Italy and Germany as examples of Calls for National Unification

• Both were inspired by growing nationalism. They were both a collection of fragmented semi-independent states, but military leaders from each nation sought to unite them into two new states.

The Industrial Revolution

Seven Environmental, Political, and Economic Factors Contributing to Industrialization

1. Proximity to Waterways. Great Britain was an island with abundant rivers and canals that helped with efficient transportation of goods.

2. Geographical distribution of coal, iron, and timber. Great Britain and its territorial holdings had all the raw materials needed to fuel industrialization.

3. Access to foreign resources. The first industrialized industry was the textile industry. Great Britain had access to huge amounts of cotton from their colony in India.

4. Improved agricultural productivity. New technology and methods of farming increased the amount of food being grown which helped to support a growing population.

5. Urbanization. Lots of people were moving from the countryside to the cities looking for jobs in new factories.

6. Legal protections of private property. Laws were passed to protect entrepreneurs which led to people feeling safe to take risks and start new businesses.

7. Accumulation of capital. There was a lot of wealth due to the Atlantic Slave Trade and other colonial ventures, so people had the money to start a new business.

Industrialization Spreads

Change in Creation of Goods

• Industrial machines were put into large buildings called factories where goods could be mass-produced which made costs come down. Initially these factories were water-powered, but when the steam engine was made it enabled factories to be anywhere. Artisans no longer needed many skills to make a product from start to finish, so labor became increasingly specialized as workers only did one job repeatedly to make a single part of a product.

Shift in Shares of Global Manufacturing

• Industrialized states started producing and selling more goods than non- industrialized places. Places like India and Egypt, which had long been known for textile production, saw their share of production decline as Britain’s went up.

Spread of Industrialization

France

• France was slow to industrialize due to a lack of coal and iron deposits, as well as several major social upheavals. France’s government sponsored the construction of railroads and canals, which was also different from Britain.

USA

• The US did not industrialize until the second half of the 19th century. Due to the Civil War, industrialization was rapid. The US had access to lots of natural resources and political stability. The US also had a growing population to make and buy more goods, which led to a higher standard of living for its workers than in other industrialized nations.

Russia

• Russia’s industrialization at the end of the 19th century was state-driven. They built a railroad to link their territory into an interdependent market. While they saw some progress, the lives of industrial workers were brutal and there were frequent uprisings.

Japan

• Japan’s Meiji Restoration was a state-sponsored defensive industrialization. In a few decades Japan became one of the most powerful industrial states in the region.

Industrial Technology

First Industrial Revolution

• Most machines were powered with coal and steam using James Watt’s steam engine. This was used to power locomotives and steamships.

Second Industrial Revolution

• Oil, distilled into gasoline, helped to fuel the new internal combustion engine. Additionally, electricity became popularly used (like in lightbulbs created by Thomas Edison). Soon there were electric streetcars, subways, and other forms of mass transit in major cities. For communication, the telegraph was used to send Morse Code long distances.

Change in Transportation Technology

Phase 1:

• There were a growing number of trains and tracks, as well as steamships. These linked distant parts of countries into the national economy and allowed workers to move more easily. 

Phase 2:

• Iron and steel ships led to increased maritime activity and eventually the creation of the Suez Canal.

Change in Building Materials

Phase 1: 

• Iron.

Phase 2:

• Steel—thanks to the Bessemer process, easily converted iron into the stronger material steel.

Economic Developments & Innovations

Use of Chemicals in the 2nd Industrial Revolution

• Synthetic dyes. Vulcanization, a process that made rubber harder and more durable.

Impacts of New Modes of Transportation

• Development of the interior of cities and states with the connecting of far away territories with trains like the trans- continental railroad in the US and the trans-siberian railroad in Russia. 

• Increased migration to areas far from people’s homes to find work.

Change in the Function of Economies due to Adam Smith

• ​​The earlier economic theory of mercantilism, which was the idea of a state-driven economy was largely replaced with Smith’s ideas about the free market and laissez-faire policies that encouraged the state to stay out of the economy.

Transnational Business

• These were businesses where a company is established in one country but has large operations that it controls in other countries. The Dutch East India Company was a transnational business.

Reactions to Industrialization

Example of Transnational Business:

•  The Unilever Corporation was a joint stock company owned by the British and Dutch that made household goods. They opened factories across the world using materials from colonial holdings in West Africa and the Belgian Congo.

New Practices in Banking and Finance

• The rise of the stock market allowed people to buy and trade shares of companies to try to make a profit. The creation of limited liability corporations protected the financial investments of its owner.

Economic Benefits of the Industrial Era

• Industrialized societies saw a rise in the standard of living, and goods became cheaper because they were produced more efficiently. This increased access to goods.

Example of Industrialization’s Impact on the Working Class

• Workers lived in tenements that were shabby—and diseases often spread through them rapidly. They worked long hours doing boring and dangerous work for very low pay.

Government Addressing the Situation of the Working Class in England

• Suffrage was expanded. Political parties were created that represented the interests of the working class (like the German Social Democratic Party). Laws were passed to restrict child labor. Public Schools were opened. The government built new infrastructure to deal with the growing population, and limited the number of hours people could work each day.

Working class also attempted to help themselves:

• They organized themselves into social societies that provided insurance for sickness, and hosted social events to create a sense of community. 

• They created labor unions in order to use collective bargaining for better working conditions.

Reactionary Industrialization

• Marxism: Karl Marx saw the suffering of the working class and the incredible wealth of the capitalists and developed a theory of Scientific Socialism. He claimed that the proletariat (working class) would rise up and overthrow the rich (bourgeoisie) to take over the means of production and create a classless society.

→ Response to the plight of the working class

Qing China Addressing Changes Brought About by the Industrialization

Self Strengthening Movement:

• In the late 19th century they started the Self- Strengthening Movement. They borrowed from the west while trying to maintain and revitalize traditional Chinese culture. Some progress was made but Chinese conservatives resisted these developments because they threatened the power of the landowning class. This half- hearted industrialization led to China’s loss in the Sino- Japanese War (to the industrialized Japan).

Industrialization’s Social Effect

Ottoman Empire Addressing Changes Brought About by the Industrialization

• The Ottomans developed the Tanzimat Reforms. They built factories and railroads. They changed to a western-style law code and a constitutional government, but like China, the conservatives resisted and stopped the reforms. The sultan resumed rule as an absolute monarch.

Industrialization Changing the Social Hierarchy

• The bottom became the industrial working class, which was made up of factory workers and miners. 

• The middle class included wealthy factory owners and white collar workers like doctors, lawyers, and teachers. This class benefited the most from industrialization. Their improved quality of life allowed some at the top to buy their way into the aristocracy. 

• At the top of the hierarchy were the industrialists who got rich by starting and owning large corporations. They often became more powerful than traditional landed elites.

Industrialization Revolution’s Impact on Women

• Working class women worked low wage jobs like men, but could not sustain a family on their wages. Middle class women were expected to stay home and be wives and mothers while their husbands earned a living.

Challenges Related to Rapid Urbanization

• Housing shortages which led to tenements. Lack of infrastructure to deal with sanitation led to public health crises like outbreaks of cholera from contaminated water. Life expectancy dropped from 40 to 30. Crime rates rose which led to the creation of large jails.

Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization (1750-1900)

Nationalism

• Nationalism: When people who are linked through shared language, religion, or social customs believe in their own greatness.

Nationalism Contributed to Second Wave of Imperialism

• Nationalism is often tied to a desire for territory and to be seen as a great power. This led to increased competition to build a large empire.

Social Darwinism

• It was a play on Darwin’s theory of evolution. Social darwinists believed that survival of the fittest applied to humans. It became a form of “scientific racism” that assumed that non-western races were like children who had not matured.

Social Darwinism Contributed to Second Wave of Imperialism

• Industrialized European states believed they were fitter than unindustrialized states. As the “fit” they were entitled to take over the “unfit.”

Imperial States Expanded

Civilizing Mission

• Imperial nations felt it was their duty to develop the people they were conquering. This included converting colonized people to Christinaity and educating them in western-style schools. In America and Canada a popular slogan for those taking over indigenous lands was “kill the Indian in him to save the man.”

Belgian Congo: Private Control → State Control

• King Leopold II of Belgium made Congo his private property. His exploitation of the land and people to extract rubber was so brutal that the Belgian government took the colony away from him and brought it under their control.

European States expanding with diplomacy

• The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) was called by Otto von Bismarck of Germany due to growing competition among imperial states. They carved up Africa into European colonial holdings without any input from African leaders, often combining rival groups and dividing unified groups.

European States expanding with warfare

• The British in South Africa fought the Dutch, who were there first, in the Boer Wars. The British consolidated their power and drove both the Dutch Afrikaners and the indigenous South Africans into refugee camps with brutal conditions and high death tolls.

Settler Colonies

• The British takeover of Australia and New Zealand led to massive waves of British settlers going to those lands to populate them. This led to the introduction of new diseases that killed indigenous populations (similar to what happened c. 1450-1750 in the Americas and Philippines). There were also settler colonies established during the Scramble for Africa.

US Participation

• The United States conquered neighboring territory in westward expansion, calling it Manifest Destiny. This lasted until the end of the 19th century and led to indigenous populations being restricted to reservations.

• They also expanded into Southeast Asia when the US defeated Spain in the Spanish American War and took control of the Philippines.

Economic Imperialism

Russian Expansion

• Russia expanded to neighboring territories by conquering Siberia, all the way to the Pacific. They also added lands in the south and the west. With the belief that Russia should unite all Slavic peoples under their rule they also developed the ideology of Pan-Slavism.

Imperialism in Japan

• Due to rapid industrialization during the Meiji Restoration, Japan was able to expand its influence over Korea, Manchuria, and other parts of China.

Economic Imperialism: “Extending control over another state by economic means.”

British Imperialism in China

• In the 19th century, the British and China had a trade imbalance. The British still wanted Chinese luxury goods, but China only wanted British silver. The British started selling Opium to China to fix the imbalance, but China did not want the highly addictive drugs sold there so they banned the sale. This led to the First Opium War and the Treaty of Nanjing, which favored British interests such as opening more ports in China. The Chinese authorities could not stop the sale of opium in China which gave European states a distinct economic advantage.

Instability in China → European Control

• Internal rebellions like the Taiping Rebellion and wars like the Second Opium War led to the creation of spheres of influence in China. It was carved up and parts of it were controlled by various western powers, Japan, and Russia.

The Economics of Imperialism

Economic Imperialism in Latin America

• The United Fruit Company, run by an American, built infrastructure like railroads and ports throughout Latin America (notably, Costa Rica) in exchange for control of large amounts of land to support their banana business. This gave them a distinct advantage and economic control of these lands.

Economic Imperialism vs. The Economics of Imperialism 

• Economic imperialism is CAUSE. It’s a method states use to control various places.

• The economics of imperialism is an EFFECT. It has to do with how global economics changed as a result of imperialism.

Export Economies

• Export Economy: An economy that is arranged around the export of commodities.

→ continuity from previous era

• The places that became export economies were created to support imperial empires.

• This is a continuity from c. 1450-1750 where conquered or colonized nations were expected to support those who conquered them.

• And similarly to the previous era, colonies were expected to buy finished products from their conquerors as well making them economically dependent on the mother country.

Migration in the Industrial Age

Examples of New Export Economies

•  The British forced India and Egypt to grow cotton for export.

• West African economies were focused on the export of palm oil to lubricate machines.

• In other places economies focused on food products like coffee or meat from livestock.

Industrialization → Increased Migration

• Technology like railroads and steamships allowed migrants to migrate easily and cheaply, and return home.

Environmental Causes

• Demographic changes, like the large and growing population in Europe led to job shortages, especially in rural areas. Many moved to urban areas seeking work.

• Famines, like the Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s, were a challenge to existing patterns of living. This led millions to migrate, seeking better lives, including in the United States.

Desire for Work → Different Kinds of Migration

• Some migrants made a free choice to relocate (like the Irish to the United States).

• Others became part of semi-coerced labor systems.

•  Many individuals chose freely to relocate, often in search of work. The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semi-coerced labor migration.

Indentured Servitude

• This was a form of semi-coerced labor. The British helped Indian and Chinese workers to move throughout their empire doing the work that enslaved people had formerly done. They signed contracts they often could not read and that forced them into long hours in terrible conditions.

Convict Labor

• This was another form of semi-coerced labor. The British and French created penal colonies in Australia and French Guiana. They sent convicts to perform years of hard labor on imperial projects like railroads.

Social Effect of Increased Migration

• Because most migrants were men, their home countries saw a growing gender imbalance. This led to women taking on roles that had traditionally been reserved for men.

Cultural Effect of Increased Migration

• Many ethnic enclaves were formed. People who migrated together and practiced the same religion often gathered in the same neighborhoods. This created places like Chinatown or Little Italy where migrants could find foods and goods that reminded them of home.

Causes of Imperial Resistance

Negative Social Effect of Increased Migration

• Some places saw a rise in nativism or prejudice of the native born people against new minority populations. This was usually rooted in ethnic or racial prejudice against those deemed “lower races” (Social Darwinism). In the US, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act and British Australia passed the White Australia Policy. Both of these limited the number of Asian immigrants, almost completely cutting them off.

Civilizing Mission

• Western education featured Enlightenment ideas like popular sovereignty (the right to rule oneself) and natural rights. This led them to question the right of imperial states to conquer others’ land.

Europeans Opposed Imperialism

• Some, like Joseph Conrad, author of Heart of Darkness, criticized its brutality. Others, like economist J.A. Hobson felt it created an unstable market and could harm economics in the long term.

Forms of Imperial Resistance

Examples of Direct Resistance Within Empires

• The Yaa Asantewaa War in West Africa, also known as the War of the Golden Stool saw the Asante Kingdom fighting back against British ignorance in thinking the Asante would accept their leadership if they simply sat on a ceremonial golden stool. Instead, Queen mother Yaa Asantewaa rallied her people to fight and resist the British intrusion. The Industrial weaponry of the British led to a British victory.

Example of People who Created a New State as a Form of Resistance

• The Cherokee Nation in the United States was forced to relocate from the East Coast to Oklahoma. They arranged their own government and tried to hold on to their culture.

• The Zulu Kingdom created a new state at the edge of the growing British South Africa. They successfully resisted British takeovers for a time.

Examples of Rebellions Influenced by Religious Ideas

• After losing land and cattle due to Europeans and their diseases, the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement in South Africa was inspired by a belief that if the Xhosa slaughtered their cattle, new healthy cattle would arise and replace them. They also believed that the imperial invaders would be driven away by the ancestral dead. Instead many died from starvation and the British took complete control of the Xhosa territory.

Unit 7: Global Conflict (1900-Present)

Power Shifts in the 20th Century

Revolution in Russia

• It was a successful communist revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party.

• The older, land-based Ottoman, Russian and Qing empires collapsed due to a combination of internal and external factors. These changes in Russia eventually led to communist revolution.

  • Russia was industrially behind the rest of Europe and was suffering economically because of it. World War I found them vulnerable and fighting the Austrians and Germans alone. This exhausted their resources and the people took Tsar Nicholas II out of power. This led to the rise of Vladimir Lenin.

Revolution in China

• Long standing tensions between the Manchurian Qing and the Han Chinese finally came to an end in a revolution to establish a more democratic form of government led by Sun Yat-sen. This led to the formation of the Chinese Republic in 1912.

Revolution in Mexico

• President Porfiro Diaz, whose reforms had mostly helped the elites leaving a huge gap between the rich and the landless peasants, was taken down in a revolt by Madero. Madero was subsequently assassinated which led to further socialist reforms.

• States around the world challenged the existing political and social order, including the Mexican Revolution that arose as a result of political crisis.

Revolution in Ottoman Empire

• Viewed as the “Sick Man of Europe” the Ottoman Empire had suffered a series of military defeats and a sinking economy by the 19th century. They had attempted to fix some of this with the Tanzimat reforms but they didn’t go far enough. The Young Turks rose to power advocating a Constitutional Government that was brought into reality in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.

The Start of WW1

MAIN Causes of WW1

Militarism:

• The massive building of armies and navies, led by Britain and Germany.

Alliances:

• Countries across Europe had created two primary defensive alliances in the 19th century, the triple entente (France, Britain and Russia) and the triple alliance (Germany, Austria, and Italy). Because blame for the war was unclear, all powers went to war under the guise of defending their allies. During the war the names of the alliances changed. The triple entente became the allies. The triple alliance became the central powers.

Imperialism:

• There were bitter rivalries among European countries created by the competition to grab lands in Africa and Asia.

Nationalism:

• The feeling that one’s country was the best and others were not led people to feel that they could win any war.

Spark that Started WW1

• Serbian nationalists killed the Archduke of Austria-Hungary, which led to the alliances kicking in.

During WW1 (1914-1918)

Total War

• All resources of a given state, including civilians and manufacturing, were marshalled in service of the war effort

Changes in Technology

• WWI was the bloodiest war the world had ever seen. The addition of modern weapons like machine guns, and poison gas, plus the use of trench warfare led to a stalemate and a war of attrition (both sides just trying to wear each other down).

• New military technology led to increased levels of wartime casualties.

Propaganda

• Propaganda is when the government shares information that is highly biased & often misrepresents facts to create a strong emotional response. Propaganda in WWI demonized the enemy and kept people strongly behind the war effort.

• Governments used a variety of strategies including political propaganda, art, media and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies) for the purpose of waging war.

• This helps explain the similarities in how governments use a variety of methods to conduct war as this was done in World War I and II.

The End of WW1

Outcome & Treaties

• The Allies won and the Central Powers lost. The Treaty of Versailles ended the war.

• The War Guilt Clause forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war. They also had to pay reparations (payment for damage). Additionally, they had to surrender valuable lands to the winners, including all of their colonial holdings.

The Inter-War Years

Germany’s Economy After WW1

• With their industrial capacity diminished and billions of dollars in reparations to pay, their economy spiraled into hyper-inflation (this means that their money, the German Mark, was severely devalued). This led to a lot of suffering for average Germans.

Great Depression

• The Great Depression began in the United States when the stock market crashed in 1929. Because the world economy was deeply intertwined the impact soon became global.

US Steps to Counteract the Great Depression

• Inspired by economist John Maynard Keynes, American president Franklin Delano Roosevelt started spending borrowed money to put Americans back to work on infrastructure and other public projects. The belief was that this would jumpstart the economy.

Government Intervention in the Soviet Economy

• Before the Great Depression, Lenin witnessed the almost total collapse of the Soviet economy. He implemented the New Economic Policy which allowed some free market capitalism into Russia to revive the economy. Stalin, who became the leader after Lenin’s death, started a series of Five Year Plans which increased government spending to industrialize the Soviet Union and collectivize its farms.

Fascism

• Fascism began in Germany and Italy. It is a form of government that is highly authoritarian, extremely nationalistic, and promotes heavy government intervention in economics.

• Governments used ideologies, including fascism and communism to mobilize all of their states resources for war and, in the case of totalitarian states, to repress basic freedoms and dominate many aspects of daily life during the course of the conflicts and beyond.

• In facism the supremacy of the state matters more than any individual right.

Government Policy Used by Fascist States

• Corporatism is the economic policy of fascism that means that every sector of the economy was understood as a separate entity, but ultimately serving the state.

Hitler Attempt to Fix Germany’s Economy

• He canceled payment of reparations and violated the Treaty of Versailles by directing government spending to build up the military.

The Inter-War Years in Colonized Countries

Expectation of Colonized Countries Who Fought for Their Colonizer

• They expected a path to independence: decolonization. This did not happen.

• Between the two world wars, Western and Japanese imperial states predominantly maintained control over colonial holdings; in some cases, they gained additional territories through conquest or treaty settlement and in other cases faced anti-imperial resistance.

Movements in India to Press for Independence

• Indians formed the Indian National Congress (INC) to formally present their complaints to the British Parliament. Mohandas Gandhi became the leader of this movement and led people in civil disobedience against unjust British laws.

• Groups and individuals challenged the many wars of the century, and some, such as Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Nelson Mandela, promoted the practice of nonviolence as a way to bring about political change.

World War II

Causes of World War II

• German resentment of the Treaty of Versailles, worldwide economic depression, and the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany.

• The causes of World War II include the unsustainable peace settlement after World War I, the global economic crisis engendered by the Great Depression, continued imperialist aspirations, and especially the rise to power of fascist and totalitarian regimes that resulted in the aggressive militarism of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler.

• Totalitarianism is when a government has total control over the lives of its citizens, including where they work and live.

World War II Oficial Beginning in Europe

• In 1939 when the Nazis invaded Poland because of their desire to expand for “lebensraum” or “living space.” Britain and France had said they would defend Poland if this happened, so the war began.

World War II Oficial Beginning in the Pacific

• In 1937, Japan launched a full scale invasion of China as part of it’s imperial efforts.

World War II Similar to World War I

• Both were total wars

• conduct war.

• Governments mobilized for war including democracies like Great Britain under Winston Churchill and the United States under Franklin Roosevelt. And, Totalitarian states like Germany under Adolf Hitler and the USSR under Joseph Stalin.

Alliances in World War II

• Axis Powers: Germany, Italy & Japan.

• Allied Powers: France, Great Britain, Russia, and the United States (the US officially entered in 1941 with the Bombing of Pearl Harbor

World War II End

• The Allied powers, bolstered by the United States’ industrial capacity, turned the tide in Europe against the Nazis. In the Pacific the United States used a new weapon, the atomic bomb, instantly destroying Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to the surrender of the Japanese.

• The Paris Peace Treaty officially ended the war, but did not repeat the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I

• New military technology and new tactics, including the atopic bomb, fire-bombing, and the waging of “total war” led to increased levels of wartime casualties.

Mass Atrocities During the World Wars

Armenian Genocide

• In 1914 the Ottoman government accused the Christian Armenian population living within their borders of colluding with the Russians. They forced the Armenians into concentration camps where they died of starvation and disease. However, the Ottomans also burned Armenians alive, gassed them in primitive gas chambers, and drowned them. In total they killed between 600,000 and 1.5 million Armenians in their policy of ethnic cleansing.

Holocaust

• Hitler tried to blame the troubles of Germany on its Jewish population due to his anti-Semitism. He felt they were contaminating the purity of the German race. Inspired by the way the world had largely ignored the Armenian Genocide, he started his own policy of extermination. Jews were sent to concentration camps like Dachau and Auschwitz to be put to hard labor. But as the war continued Hitler enacted his “Final Solution” and killed six-million Jews in a variety of ways including the use of gas chambers.

• The rise of extremist groups in power led to the attempted destruction of specific populations, most notably the Nazi killing of Jews in the Holocaust during World War II, and to other atrocities, acts of genocide, or ethnic violence.

Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization (1900-Present)

The Cold War

Cold War:

• A war in which the belligerents (those fighting) don’t actually engage in armed battle.

Cold War Fought Over:

• It was an ideological battle between the United States and the Soviet Union, who had emerged as superpowers following World War II. The ideologies they were fighting over were Capitalism vs. Communism.

• The global balance of economic and political power shifted during and after World War II and rapidly evolved into the Cold War. The democracy of the United States and the authoritarian communist Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, which led to ideological conflict and a power struggle between capitalism and communism across the globe.

Cold war Beginning

• After World War II there was vast disagreement among the allied powers (Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union) about what should happen in Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union wanted Eastern Europe to be under its influence and to act as a buffer to western aggressions. The states there were technically independent but the Soviets would not give up control. They became known as part of the Soviet Bloc.

Formal Alliances Created Because of the Cold War

• The Warsaw Pact (1955) was a militaristic, mutual defense treaty of the Soviet Bloc States.

• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949) was the same thing for western nations like the United States and Britain.

Actions of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe Leading to Cold War

• The United States feared the spread of Communism, which was happening across Eastern Europe. The goal of Communism is to spread across the whole world. In the United States, the deeply held beliefs in democracy and capitalism are infused with a similar goal: to spread it across the world.

Spread of Communism to China Effect on US

• China became communist in 1949. Their economic policies like the Great Leap Forward had disastrous results for the people. China had fought with the United States against the Japanese in the Pacific, and still became Communist.

• Before World War II the Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, had started trying to take control in China. They were engaged in a civil war with the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party who were running the Republic when the Japanese invaded. Nominally, the two put their differences aside to fight the Japanese in World War II, but the moment the war was over the communists went back to fighting the KMT. The communists gained support in the countryside while the KMT was supported in the cities. The KMT had done most of the fighting in World War II and could not resist the power of the peasant backed Communists. In 1949 Mao Zedong declared China as the People’s Republic of China, and created a communist government.

• The communist government started the Great Leap forward to further China’s goals of industrialization and increasing food production through collectivization (much like Stalin’s Five Year Plans), however, food production could not meet demands as much of the population was shifted away from food production towards industrialization and infrastructure building. Between 1958- 1961 approximately 45 million people died of starvation.

Policy of Containment

• United States vowed to fight the spread of Communism. They would leave countries alone that were already communist, but they would not allow it to spread further.

US Attempt to Fight Communism Economically

• Under the Marshall Plan (1948) the United States funneled 13 billion dollars into European nations following World War II. The money was used to modernize industry, rebuild infrastructure, and reduce trade barriers. They felt that if nations saw the benefits of democracy and capitalism, they would stay away from communism.

Cold War Lead to Arms Race

• The Soviet Union raced to get an atomic weapon like the United States had and then the two started building bigger and more destructive weapons to outdo each other. The hydrogen bomb, which both created, was much more deadly than the atomic bomb.

Economic Effect of the Arms Race

• Both countries developed a military industrial complex as the relationship between the economy and the production of weapons became more intertwined.

Massive Acquisition of Nuclear Weapons → Cold War

• If the United States or the Soviet Union attacked each other, they were facing a policy of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Therefore, they didn’t.

The Global Impact of the Cold War

Proxy War

• It’s when one place stands in as a representative for another. The US and USSR didn’t directly fight each other, but used stand-ins to fight for them.

• Groups and individuals, including the Non-Aligned Movement, opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political, and social orders.

• Newly decolonized countries often took sides in the Cold War. Sometimes they did this for economic gain. Those who refused to take a side and wanted to work with both the US and the USSR were part of the Non-Aligned Movement.

• For example, Sukarno who had led the fight for independence against the Dutch in Indonesia, and Kwame Nkrumah, who led Ghana’s independence movement against the British, both started as non- aligned. However, by the 1960s both of these leaders were looking to Communist states for support.

Korean War: A Proxy War for the Cold War

• After World War II, Korea was split in two with the north occupied by the Soviets and the south occupied by the Americans and their allies. In 1950, the north invaded the south to try to unify the country. During the war the north was supported by China and the Soviet Union, while the south was supported by troops from the United States. The US and Russia weren’t fighting directly, but through Korean proxies. After 3 years of fighting and millions killed, the war ended in a stalemate.

• The movement towards socialism or communism in many newly independent states was due to weak economies that left the majority of the population in poverty. Because socialism promises a social safety-net and communism promises to raise the economic status of the poor, they were attractive to many newly decolonized countries. 

• Additionally, it was western Europeans who had colonized most of the countries who were suffering. Many saw the Soviet Union as an alternative to working with their former colonizers. An example of this includes the Communist Revolution for Vietnamese Independence (first fought against the French and then the Americans due to their policy of containment).

Angolan Civil War: A Proxy War for the Cold War

• After World War II the borders of the newly decolonized Angola in Southwest Africa were sloppily drawn. Three rival Angolan ethnic groups were put into the same country and were fighting for control (partially because the land was rich in diamonds). The Americans backed one ethnic group, the Soviets backed another.

• A Latin American example of this is Nicaraguan Revolution, or the Sandinista-Contras conflict. The Sandinistas were communists, backed by the Soviet Union.The Contras were nationalists backed by the United States 

The End of the Cold War

How the War Came to an End

• Mikhail Gorbachev’s attempts to save the Soviet Union led to its demise. He tried to implement the policies of Perestroika (restructuring of the economy, with considerations towards free trade) and Glasnost (more openness and transparency in government). However the Soviet Union was too corrupt and economically weak from the Soviet- Afghan War. Therefore Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev negotiated an end to the Cold War.

• Additionally, advances in U.S. military and technological development, the Soviet Union’s costly and ultimately failed invasion of Afghanistan, public discontent and economic weakness in communist countries led to the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

• Additionally, advances in U.S. military and technological development, the Soviet Union’s costly and ultimately failed invasion of Afghanistan, public discontent and economic weakness in communist countries led to the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Decolonization

How India Gained Independence

• They used non-violence and negotiation. In the mid-19th century (1857) they had risen up against the British unsuccessfully. 30 years later they created the Indian National Congress (INC) eventually led by Mohandas Gandhi who advocated mass civil disobedience against unjust laws and non- violence. Britain’s military was exhausted from World War II and its resources limited for the same reason, so they started negotiations to move India towards independence.

• The INC is a good example of nationalist leaders seeking independence from imperial rule.

• Other good examples of nationalist leaders include Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam (leader of the communist party there) and Kwame Nkrumah, who led Ghana to independence.

Muslim Minority in India Impacted Independence

• The Muslim League in India advocated for a partition of India to create a new Muslim majority state, Pakistan. This was achieved in 1947 and while Muslims and Hindus fled to where their group was the majority there was massive violence as old tensions flared.

• The Muslim League is a good example of a regional, religious, or ethnic movement that challenged colonial rule and inherited imperial boundaries advocating for autonomy.

• The redrawing of political boundaries after the withdrawal of former colonial authorities led to the creation of new states like Pakistan and Israel. This sometimes led to conflict as well as population displacement and/or resettlements, including those related to the Partition of India.

Similar Indian Techniques to Gain Rights Used in US

• Martin Luther King, Jr. also used non-violence to protest racial inequality which led to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

How Algeria Gained Independence From France

• They used violence. The French tried to stop protests by the Algerians against the hardships they were facing with violence and restrictive laws. This started the Algerian War for Independence which began in 1954. They used guerilla style warfare and gained their independence in 1962.

Modern Legacy of the Cold War and Imperialism

How the World’s Imperial Past & Cold War Resulted in Violence

• The terrorist group Al-Qaeda who were behind the 9/11 bombing formed with the support of the United States during the Cold War to combat the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. In the late 80s and early 90s this group turned against the United States.

How the World Changed Because of Decolonization

• Between 1945 and 2000 the number of independent states more than doubled.

Relationship Between Former Colonizers and the Colonized Continued

• Many people from the former colonies moved to the states of their metropole (former colonizer). Many immigrants from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh moved to England. Many Algerians, West Africans and Vietnamese moved to France.

• They relocated because there were economic opportunities in the metropole that did not exist under the weak economies of their newly independent states.

Unit 9: Globalization (1900- Present)

Globalization

• Globalization describes the increasing economic, political, and social interconnectedness of the world.

Communication Technology Increased Globalization

• By the 1930s in the U.S., radios were found in about 12 million homes and had news programs and entertainment.

• By the 1960s televisions replaced the radio for the developed world.

• News broadcasts of the war in Vietnam or the Cuban Missile Crisis let people

• see and feel connected to places across the world.

• Telephones were invented in the 19th century. Cellular technology (cell

• phones) were invented in the 1980s, allowing people to speak to each other

• across the globe.

• The internet became widely available in the 1990s with the rise of personal

• computers and the World Wide Web. This further connected people through access to email and YouTube Videos.

Examples of Shipping Technology Increasing Globalization

• Increasing use of air travel after War II for work and pleasure gave people access to the world.

• The adoption of shipping containers, made the most significant contribution

• to a globalized economy. They are standardized metal boxes that can be stacked for shipping cargo without having to be unpacked while being transferred from trains or trucks or boats. Almost all consumer goods are transported across the world in shipping containers.

Examples of Energy Technologies Increasing Globalization

• Fossil fuels, like petroleum are more energy efficient and became the main power source of industrial manufacturing, increasing production in order to meet the demand for consumer goods across the world.

• Nuclear power was harnessed for civilian use. It is a clear energy source, but due to several disasters at nuclear plants, it is less widely embraced.

Impact of Medical Technology

• Medical birth control methods like the birth control pill gave women more reliable control over their fertility. This mostly affected women in wealthier countries and led to declining fertility rates. In places like Japan and several European countries, it caused a demographic crisis.

• In the developing world like in Sub-Saharan Africa, populations are growing rapidly due lack of access to birth control.

Agriculture Technology Increasing Globalization

• Commercial agriculture has become the dominant model for growing food in a way that increases production and maximizes profits. This has led to a significant increase in the world’s food supply.

Green Revolution

• The Green Revolution started in the 1950s and 60s. During it, scientists used genetic modification to created new strains of high-yielding grain crops that produced 3-4 times the normal yield. They helped places in the developing world like Mexico, India, and Indonesia with high populations and not enough food.

Disease in the 20th Century

Increased Globalization → Spread of Disease

• The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 was global. Near the end of World War I this disease began to spread along travel and trade routes ultimately killing around 50 million people in two years. It mostly affected working age people. More died from the pandemic than on the battlefields of WWI.

Disease Associated With Poverty

• Malaria is a disease spread by infected mosquitos in warmer, tropical regions. Due to lack of access to effective medical interventions and practical measures like mosquito nets, there are hundreds of thousands of deaths per year, mostly in the poor regions of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Disease Associated With Aging Population

• Heart disease and Alzheimer’s mainly affect wealthier older people who have increased lifespans due to the new medical technologies they have access to. This has also led to new medical advances to treat these diseases like bypass surgery on the heart.

Environment in the 20th Century

Increased Urbanization Impact on Environment

• Deforestation, the large-scale clearing of trees in a geographical area is due to increasing urbanization and the creation of suburbs. Additionally, forests are being cleared to create more farmland to keep everyone fed. This has led to an increasing number of animal species going extinct and more pollution due to erosion and contaminated water runoff. Also, air quality is declining due to increased dependence on fossil fuels, especially in cities.

Increased Agricultural Production Impact on Environment

• Desertification which occurs when farmland becomes infertile due to over cultivation encouraged by commercial farming practices becoming useless. Also, only about 3% of Earth’s water is drinkable. With growing populations comes competition, and commercial farming outfits use a large percentage of that freshwater to water their crops.

• The World Health Organization estimates that by 2025, half the world’s population will lack clean drinking water.

Economic Policies

• By the 1980s free market economics and economic liberalization became popular. States began to emphasize free market policies like the lowering of trade barriers such as tariffs, deregulation of industry, and the transfer of public sector industries to private parties. This trend is all about the government getting its hands off the economy.

Government Encouragement 

• The governments of Ronald Reagan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher in the United Kingdom. Both reduced taxes on the wealthy, deregulated business, and decreased spending on social welfare programs. The economic health and power of both nations grew, but the power of labor unions was undermined and the gap between the wealthy and the poor increased significantly.

Work Done by Advanced Nations

• Work in wealthier countries became characterized by knowledge workers whose work was not done by their bodies, but their minds. Example: Finland was an agrarian economy prior to World War II, but toward the end of the 20th century the government invested heavily in their technology sector. This led to tremendous economic growth as they became important in cell phone technology and software development, which is knowledge work.

Multinational corporations

• Multinational corporations are businesses that are incorporated in one country but manufacture and sell goods in other countries globally.

• Example: Nestle is headquartered in Switzerland, purchases and manufactures their chocolate with low-wage workers in West Africa, and then sells their chocolate on the world market.

Globalization Changing Culture

• New communication and transportation technologies made it so that people from all over the world were exposed to other cultures. This has created globalized culture.

Specific Musical Examples

• Reggae originated in Jamaica, but the popularity of Bob Marley led the music to spread globally.

• K-Pop originated in South Korea, and is now everywhere.

Globalized Culture in Film

• Hollywood is based in the United States, and Bollywood (or the Hindi film industry) is based in India. Both make films that reflect their local culture and values, but both also produce films that make a lot of money on the international market. For example, Lagaan is a Hindi film that became such a global phenomenon that it was nominated for an Oscar in 2002, and is enjoyed by AP World History students across the globe.

Globalized Culture in Sports

• The Olympics and the World Cup. Billions of people across the world watch these events every four years. They are platforms for the expression of nationalism as athletes from various countries compete for the ultimate prize.

Globalized Consumer Culture

• Global consumer culture means that people are defined by what they buy, not what they make. The United States had an oversized influence on the global culture and the economy after World War II which led many countries to be consumers of American brands like Coca-Cola, which can be found all over the world. Toyota, a Japanese car manufacturer, is a multinational corporation which sells cars in 170 countries throughout the world.

Communications and Shipping Technology Aiding Global Consumerism

• Giant online retailers like Alibaba in China, or Amazon and eBay in the United States have hundreds of millions of users from around the globe. Shipping containers move the goods.

United Nations

• The United Nations (successor to the League of Nations) was created after World War II. It was created to accomplish two purposes: to prevent war and facilitate cooperation among the world’s nations.

United Nations Operation to Promote its Goals

• The General Assembly of the UN includes representatives from all member nations and is responsible for discussing and making policies for all member nations.

• Example: The General Assembly created UNICEF (the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) in 1946 to provide social welfare services to children throughout the world. It has created global initiatives for child immunizations, education, and emergency relief for children and mothers in the aftermath of disasters.

• Example: The Security Council of the UN is responsible for global peace keeping. It has five permanent members— the U.S., China, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom—and ten seats that rotate to representatives of member nations. The permanent members have veto power, which they often use to protect their own interests. The Security Council works toward their goal by sending military peacekeepers to stabilize violent situations, and they can impose economic sanctions on states creating violence and war or violating human rights.

United Nations Assistance to the World Economically

•  The UN created global economic institutions like the World Bank which was created to provide financial assistance to Europe after World War II. Late in the 20th century it started providing loans and technical assistance to developing countries to help them reduce poverty, promote economic development, and achieve sustainable growth. The International Monetary Fund was created to help member states. Both want to promote free trade and keep global currency values stable and flowing.

 Globalization Promoting Human Rights

• It created movements for rights-based discourse that challenged old assumptions about race, class, gender, and religion.

• Example: In 1948 the United Nations created the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which included basic human rights, condemned racism, imperialism, and championed social and economic equality for all the world’s citizens. Member nations are expected to uphold those rights, but some are more aspirational than real world realities.

Reforms in Terms of Gender

• The global feminist movement worked to secure women’s right to vote across the world ( the United Nations promoted this too).

Reforms in Terms of Race, Class, and Politics

• Black liberation campaigns like the Negritude Movement worked to eliminate racial discrimination. It was mostly a literary and ideological movement that promoted blackness and black culture as worthy of celebration and dignity.

• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States led the Supreme Court to abolish racial segregation in schools, and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 ending legal discrimination and segregation based on race.

• In India, the caste reservation system holds a percentage of seats in educational institutions, government jobs, and elected positions for members of historically marginalized caste groups.

Environmentalism

• Environmentalism is a response to the negative environmental effects of globalization. This became a global concern due to worries over climate change.

Global Environmental Movement

• Greenpeace is a global environmental protection organization that uses various nonviolent tactics to raise awareness and advocate for the protection of the environment.

Protests Against Globalization

• Wealthier nations benefited more from economic liberalization than poor ones. The economic policies created by the WTO, the World Bank, and the IMF made it easy for multinational corporations to exploit laborers in developing countries.

• The Battle for Seattle in 1999 happened when the World Trade Organization (WTO) met in Seattle and a massive protest formed outside with over 40,000 people from a large diversity of backgrounds. The protest was met with violence as police used tear gas and rubber bullets to try to disperse the crowd. This started a much larger anti- globalization movement that represents the interests of those who have been marginalized by globalized economic policies.