Anatomy & Physiology 1 Exam 1 Review

Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

  • Anatomy: The scientific study of body structures.

  • Physiology: The study of body parts and how they interact functionally with one another.

  • Principle of Complementarity: Structure and function complement one another; the function of a part is dependent on its specific form or structure.

Anatomical Position and Directional Terminology

  • Anatomical Position Defined: The person stands erect, facing forward, with arms at the sides. The palms of the hands are turned forward (supinated), and the feet are flat on the floor.

  • Surface Anatomy Terms:

    • Nuchal: Back of the neck.

    • Palmar: The palm of the hand.

    • Pollex: The thumb.

    • Digital/Phalangeal: Fingers or toes.

    • Femoral: The thigh.

    • Patellar: The anterior surface of the knee.

    • Crural: The leg.

    • Pedal: The foot.

    • Metatarsal/Tarsal: The ankle.

  • Directional Orientation Terms:

    • Ventral: Toward the front or belly.

    • Dorsal: Toward the back or spine.

    • Anterior: Toward the ventral side.

    • Posterior: Toward the dorsal side.

    • Cephalic: Toward the head or superior end.

    • Rostral: Toward the forehead or nose.

    • Caudal: Toward the tail or inferior end.

    • Superior: Positioned above another structure.

    • Inferior: Positioned below another structure.

    • Medial: Toward the median plane (midline).

    • Lateral: Away from the median plane.

    • Proximal: Relative term meaning closer to the point of attachment or origin.

    • Distal: Relative term meaning farther from the point of attachment or origin.

    • Ipsilateral: Located on the same side of the body (e.g., right arm and right leg).

    • Contralateral: Located on opposite sides of the body.

    • Superficial: Closer to the body surface.

    • Deep: Farther from the body surface.

Body Cavities and Linings

  • Dorsal Cavities: Contains the Cranial cavity and the Spinal cavity.

  • Ventral Cavities:

    • Thoracic Cavity: Includes the Pericardial cavity (heart) and Pleural cavities (lungs).

    • Abdominopelvic Cavity: Divided into the Abdominal cavity and the Pelvic cavity.

  • Mediastinum: A region located in the middle of the thorax between the pleural cavities. It contains the heart, portions of the trachea, the esophagus, and several major blood vessels.

  • Cavity Linings (Serous Membranes):

    • Parietal: The lining in contact with the body wall.

    • Visceral: The lining in contact with the internal organs.

    • Cavity: The potential space located between the parietal and visceral linings.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

  • Four Quadrants:

    • Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ).

    • Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ).

    • Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ).

    • Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ).

  • Nine Regions:

    • Superior Row: Right Hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left Hypochondriac.

    • Middle Row: Right Lumbar (Flank), Umbilical, Left Lumbar (Flank).

    • Inferior Row: Right Iliac (Inguinal), Hypogastric (Pubic), Left Iliac (Inguinal).

Body Planes and Sections

  • Concept: Invisible flat surfaces that separate the body into sections. Three planes define a 3D object.

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left sides.

    • Midsagittal: Divides the body into perfectly equal right and left halves.

    • Parasagittal: Divides the body into unequal right and left sides.

  • Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

  • Coronal (Frontal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) portions.

Organization and Systems of the Human Body

  • Levels of Organization (Smallest to Largest):

    1. Atoms

    2. Molecules

    3. Organelles

    4. Cells

    5. Tissues

    6. Organs

    7. Organ Systems

    8. Organism

  • The Eleven Organ Systems:

    1. Integumentary: Skin, hair, nails, glands. Functions as a barrier/1st line of defense, regulates temp, synthesizes Vitamin D, excretes waste.

    2. Skeletal: Bones, joints, ligaments. Provides structural support, protects organs, allows movement, blood formation, calcium storage.

    3. Muscular: Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles; tendons. Provides movement, maintains posture, produces heat.

    4. Lymphatic: Thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, nodules, vessels. Balances fluids, transports dietary lipids, immune function.

    5. Respiratory: Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, alveoli. Gas exchange, olfaction, sound production.

    6. Urinary: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. Eliminates waste, regulates blood volume, pressure, composition, and pH\text{pH}.

    7. Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves. Controls all other systems, communication between systems, processes sensory info.

    8. Endocrine: Hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, testes/ovaries. Regulates metabolism, growth, and reproduction via hormones.

    9. Cardiovascular: Blood, heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). Transports gases, nutrients, hormones, waste; distributes heat.

    10. Digestive: GI tract (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines, rectum, anus) and accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas). Breaks down food for nutrients; rids waste.

    11. Reproductive:

      • Male: Testis, epididymis, vas deferens, scrotum, penis, urethra, accessory glands. Produces sex hormones/cells, maintains male characteristics.

      • Female: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, breasts. Produces sex hormones/cells, maintains female characteristics, nurtures fetus.

Homeostasis and Feedback Loops

  • Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment through regulatory processes.

  • Feedback Loop Components:

    • Sensor (Receptor): Monitors the environment and responds to stimuli (changes).

    • Control Center: Determines the "set point" or ideal value.

    • Target (Effector): Responds to the stimulus to effect change.

  • Negative Feedback Loop: The most common type. The response reduces, shuts off, or counterbalances the original stimulus. Example: Body temperature regulation (shivering when cold, sweating when hot).

  • Positive Feedback Loop: Enhances, exaggerates, or amplifies the original stimulus. Example: Blood clotting (platelets signaling for more platelets until the clot forms) and labor/childbirth.

Basic Chemistry in Anatomy

  • Atom Structure:

    • Nucleus: Contains Protons (+charge+\text{charge}) and Neutrons (no charge\text{no charge}).

    • Orbit: Contains Electrons (−charge-\text{charge}).

    • Atomic Number: Total number of protons in an atom.

    • Mass Number: Total number of protons plus neutrons.

    • Atomic Weight: Average mass of an atom of that element.

    • Isotopes: Elements with the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons.

  • Ions: Atoms or molecules with an electrical charge due to an imbalance of protons (+1+1) and electrons (−1-1).

    • Cation: Protons > Electrons; results in a positive (+1+\text{1}) charge.

    • Anion: Electrons > Protons; results in a negative (−1-\text{1}) charge.

Chemical Bonds and Mixtures

  • Ionic Bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons between a metal (which loses electrons) and a nonmetal (which gains electrons); results in an attraction between cations and anions. Example: NaClNaCl.

  • Covalent Bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.

    • Nonpolar Covalent: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., Methane CH4CH_4).

    • Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing of electrons, creating partial charges (e.g., Water H2OH_2O).

  • Mixtures:

    • Homogenous (Solutions): Uniform composition; does not separate over time. Consists of a Solvent (larger part) and a Solute (smaller part).

    • Heterogenous: Non-uniform composition.

  • Water Properties: Universal solvent; capable of hydrogen bonding, cohesion (attraction to other water), and adhesion (sticking to other types of molecules). High heat capacity.

  • Electrolytes: Substances that form ions when dissolved in water. Examples include K+K^+ (Potassium), Na+Na^+ (Sodium), and HCO3−HCO_3^- (Bicarbonate).

Acids, Bases, and pH

  • Acids: Species that donate an H+H^+ ion. \text{pH} < 7.

    • Acidosis: Condition where blood \text{pH} < 7.35, often caused by CO2CO_2 accumulation.

  • Bases: Species that accept an H+H^+ ion. \text{pH} > 7.

    • Alkalosis: Condition where blood \text{pH} > 7.45, often caused by excessive CO2CO_2 loss.

  • Buffers: Solutions that resist large pH\text{pH} changes when an acid or base is added.

Organic Chemistry and Biomolecules

  • Carbon: Contains 44 unpaired valence electrons; forms 44 covalent bonds. The framework for organic molecules.

  • Metabolism Terminology:

    • Anabolism: Building up of biomolecules.

    • Catabolism: Breaking down of biomolecules.

  • Reaction Types:

    • Dehydration Synthesis: Removing water to link monomers into a polymer.

    • Hydrolysis: Adding water to break a polymer into monomers.

The Four Macromolecules

  • Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides):

    • Composition: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (C,H,OC, H, O). No Nitrogen.

    • Monomer: Monosaccharides (Fructose, Glucose, Galactose - "FGG").

    • Disaccharides: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Maltose (Glucose + Glucose - "M&M"), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose).

    • Function: Provide energy, specifically glucose for the brain.

  • Lipids:

    • Composition: C,H,OC, H, O. No Nitrogen.

    • Components: Glycerol and Fatty Acids.

    • Types: Triglycerides (simple lipids), Phospholipids (compound lipids), Steroids (44-ring structure), Waxes (COOCCOOC ester group).

    • Fatty Acids:

      • Short-Chain (SCFA): 1−61-6 carbons.

      • Medium-Chain (MCFA): 7−127-12 carbons.

      • Long-Chain (LCFA): 13−2113-21 carbons.

      • Saturated: Single bonds, solid at room temp.

      • Unsaturated: One or more double bonds, liquid at room temp.

    • Phospholipid Bilayer: Hydrophilic phosphate head and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

  • Nucleic Acids:

    • Composition: C,H,O,NC, H, O, N, and Phosphorus.

    • Monomer: Nucleotide (Phosphate + Pentose Sugar + Nitrogenous Base).

    • DNA: Deoxyribose sugar. Double-stranded helix. Bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G). "Apple Tree; Car Garage".

    • RNA: Ribose sugar. Single-stranded. Bases: Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).

  • Proteins:

    • Composition: C,H,O,NC, H, O, N.

    • Monomer: Amino Acids (2020 varieties).

    • Classification: Complete proteins (all essential amino acids; animal-based) vs. Incomplete proteins (missing essential amino acids; plant-based).

    • Essential Amino Acids: Must be obtained from diet (Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Threonine, Methionine, Lysine, Tryptophan, Phenylalanine).

    • Hierarchy of Structure:

      1. Primary: Sequence of amino acids (polypeptide chain).

      2. Secondary: Alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet.

      3. Tertiary: Final three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide.

      4. Quaternary: Aggregation of two or more polypeptides.

    • Enzymes: Protein catalysts that increase reaction rates without being consumed; highly specific and efficient.

Questions & Discussion

  • Question: Define the following directional terminology: Distal, Anterior, Cephalic, Superior, Dorsal, Medial, Contralateral, Deep.

    • Answer: Distal (further from attachment), Anterior (toward front), Cephalic (toward head), Superior (above), Dorsal (toward back), Medial (toward midline), Contralateral (opposite sides), Deep (further from surface).

  • Question: The nose is ________ and ________ to the eyes. The heart is ________ to the sternum. The elbow is ________ to the wrist. The head is ________ to the abdomen.

    • Answer: Inferior and medial; Deep; Proximal; Superior.

  • Question: The heart is found in the ________ cavity, which is located inside the ________ cavity.

    • Answer: Pericardial; Thoracic.

  • Question: Is the spine located in a dorsal or ventral cavity?

    • Answer: Dorsal.

  • Question: The pleural cavity is located between the ________ pleura and the ________ pleura.

    • Answer: Parietal; Visceral (surrounding the lung).

  • Question: Transverse divides into ________ + ________; Sagittal into ________ + ________; Coronal into ________ + ________.

    • Answer: Superior/Inferior; Right/Left; Anterior/Posterior.

  • Question: Arteries and veins are part of the ________ system. Regulation of blood volume/pH belongs to the ________ system. The hypothalamus is in the ________ system.

    • Answer: Cardiovascular; Urinary; Endocrine.

  • Question: In a negative feedback loop, the response works in the ________ direction of the stimulus. In a positive loop, it works in the ________ direction.

    • Answer: Opposite; Same.

  • Question: A cation has more ________ than ________ and its charge is ________.

    • Answer: Protons; Electrons; Positive (+1+\text{1}).

  • Question: Which of the four macromolecules contains nitrogen?

    • Answer: Proteins and Nucleic Acids.