Introduction to Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY: OVERVIEW AND FUNDAMENTALS

  • Definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

    • Behavior: Observable actions of humans and animals.

    • Mental Processes: Thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be directly observed.

    • Scientific Study: Utilization of the scientific method to explore and understand psychological phenomena.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

  1. Description

    • Observing a behavior and noting everything about it, including:

      • What is happening?

      • Where does it happen?

      • To whom does it happen?

      • Under what circumstances does it occur?

  2. Explanation

    • This is the why. Seeking to understand why a behavior is occurring.

    • Theory: A general explanation for a set of observations or facts.

  3. Prediction

    • This leads to testing the question: When will this behavior happen again?

  4. Control

    • Modifying behavior to ensure it becomes adaptive.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS AND AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION

  • Areas of Specialization:

    • Clinical Psychology: Focus on diagnosing and treating mental disorders.

    • Cognitive Psychology: Study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

    • Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Application of psychological principles in the workplace.

    • Social and Personality Psychology: Study of how social contexts and individual traits influence behavior.

    • Developmental Psychology: Study of psychological growth and changes throughout life.

  • Places of Work:

    • Universities

    • Private for-profit organizations

    • Private non-profit organizations

THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

  • Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): Explored the connection between soul and body.

  • Plato (427-347 B.C.): Proposed Dualism, the idea that body and soul are separate yet interrelated.

  • Descartes (1596-1650): Modified Dualism; argued that mind and body interact via the pineal gland.

  • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Known as the Father of Psychology.

    • Established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (1879).

    • Proposed that the mind consists of basic elements analyzed through objective introspection.

    • Objective Introspection: The process of examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities.

    • His contributions included:

    1. Studying non-physical structures like thoughts and emotions.

    2. Attempted to bring objectivity and measurement to psychology.

    3. Authored approximately 55,000 pages in books and journals.

    4. Trained others in psychological methods.

  • Edward Titchener (1867-1927): Brought Wundt’s ideas to the U.S.

    • Focused on the structure or basic elements of the mind through introspection.

FUNCTIONALISM

  • William James (1842-1910):

    • Proposed that Functionalism focuses on how the mind allows people to adapt and function in the real world.

    • Advocated the concept of the “Stream of thought” — opposed the notion of static elements of the mind.

    • Influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection, suggesting that behavioral traits contribute to survival.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

  • An early psychological perspective focusing on perception and sensation with an emphasis on patterns and whole figures.

    • Gestalt means “an organized whole.”

    • Core Principle: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”

    • Gestalt psychologists argued that individuals naturally seek out patterns in sensory information:

    • Max Wertheimer played a significant role in developing this perspective.

MODERN PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY

  • In contemporary psychology, multiple perspectives exist, none fully explaining all human behavior.

  1. Psychodynamic Perspective:

    • Based on Freud’s psychoanalysis which focuses on unconscious processes and early childhood.

    • Unconscious Mind: The part of the mind that influences thoughts and behaviors but is not directly accessible.

    • Modern Psychodynamic Focus: Emphasizes the impact of the unconscious and early development on self and relationships.

  2. Behavioral Perspective:

    • Focuses on observable behavior, claiming that behavior is learned.

    • Key Figures:

      • Ivan Pavlov: Famous for conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).

      • John B. Watson: Advocated for behaviorism, emphasizing scientific inquiry over consciousness.

      • “Little Albert” Experiment: Demonstrated how fear can be conditioned.

      • B.F. Skinner: Introduced operant conditioning to describe the learning of voluntary behaviors through reinforcement and punishment.

  3. Humanistic Perspective:

    • Developed as a counter to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, stressing personal freedom and self-actualization.

    • Key Figures: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

  4. Cognitive Perspective:

    • Studies mental processes including memory, intelligence, and problem solving.

    • Explores cognitive neuroscience using technologies like fMRI.

  5. Sociocultural Perspective:

    • Examines how social interactions and cultural contexts shape behavior.

  6. Biopsychological Perspective:

    • Attributes behavior and mental processes to biological influences such as hormones, heredity, and brain chemistry.

    • Often referred to as physiological psychology or behavioral neuroscience.

  7. Evolutionary Perspective:

    • Explains psychological traits and behaviors as adaptations for survival, benefiting oneself or their offspring.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN PSYCHOLOGY

  • A system designed to minimize bias and error in data measurement.

STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

  1. Perceiving the Question:

    • Identify something intriguing in the environment requiring explanation. Related to psychology's description goal.

  2. Form a Hypothesis:

    • A tentative explanation based on observations, related to description and explanation goals.

  3. Testing the Hypothesis:

    • Extend investigations to collect appropriate data for validation.

  4. Drawing Conclusions:

    • Analyze the data to determine whether the hypothesis is supported. Pertains to prediction and control goals.

  5. Report Your Results:

    • Sharing findings, whether successful or not, is crucial for scientific progress.

DESCRIPTIVE METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Naturalistic Observation

  • Definition: Observing subjects in their natural environments without interference.

    • Advantages: Authentic data collection; natural behavior.

    • Limitations: Lack of control over variables.

    • Key Terms:

    • Observer Effect: Alteration of behavior in subjects due to being observed.

    • Observer Bias: Preconceived notions affecting data interpretation.

Laboratory Observation

  • Definition: Observing subjects in a controlled, structured environment.

    • Advantages: Greater control over variables.

    • Limitations: Possible non-representative behaviors compared to natural settings.

Case Study

  • Definition: An in-depth examination of an individual or group.

    • Advantages: Detailed data collection.

    • Limitations: Limited generalizability to the broader population.

Survey Method

  • Definition: Standardized questioning of a large, representative sample from a population.

    • Advantages: Allows collection of large amounts of data.

    • Limitations: Responses may lack honesty or accuracy due to memory biases.

    • Key Terms:

    • Representative Sample: Randomly selected subjects from the larger population.

    • Population: The full group of individuals being studied or surveyed.

FINDING RELATIONSHIPS IN DATA

  • Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables, encompassing strength and direction.

    • Correlation Coefficient (r): A numerical value indicating both the strength and direction of a correlation.

    • Positive Correlation: Indicates that variables move in the same direction.

    • Negative Correlation: Indicates that variables move in opposite directions. The farther the value from 0, the stronger the correlation.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

  • Experiment: The only method that permits researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships through manipulation of variables.

KEY DEFINITIONS

  • Variable: Any factor that can change or vary within an experiment.

  • Operational Definition: A clear definition of a variable that allows for its measurement (e.g., “aggressive behavior”).

  • Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by researchers.

  • Dependent Variable (DV): The measurable response of participants affected by changes in the independent variable.

  • Experimental Group: The group exposed to the independent variable.

  • Control Group: The group not exposed to the independent variable.

  • Random Assignment: The method of randomly distributing subjects into groups to equalize pre-existing differences.

ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS IN EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

  • Placebo Effect: Participant expectations can influence their responses, potentially skewing results.

  • Experimenter Effect: Researcher biases can unconsciously affect study outcomes.

    • Single-Blind Study: Participants do not know their group assignment (experimental or control).

    • Double-Blind Study: Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, mitigating biases.

ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

GUIDELINES

to protect participants include:

  1. Protection of Rights and Well-Being: Safeguarding the health and rights of participants.

  2. Informed Consent: Participants must be fully aware of the study procedures and any potential risks before agreeing to partake.

  3. Justification for Deception: If deception is necessary, it must be ethically justified and not harm participants.

  4. Right to Withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.

  5. Protection from Harm: Participants must be safeguarded from physical and psychological harm.

  6. Confidentiality: Ensure participant privacy and data protection.

  7. Debriefing: Providing participants with information regarding the study's purpose and any deception utilized post-study.

EXAMPLE OF CORRELATION IN REAL-WORLD SCENARIO

  • Scenario: A concession stand manager observes that more hot chocolate is sold on colder days.

    • Correlation Coefficients:

    • A. -0.08

    • B. +0.023

    • C. -0.71

    • D. +0.83

    • Analysis: In this case, a strong negative correlation (-0.71) represents the relationship, since it indicates that as temperature decreases, hot chocolate sales increase, demonstrating an inverse relationship.