Lecture+2+-+Research+Methods%2C+Epistemology%2C+and+Science

Lecture Overview

• Lecture Title: Introduction to Research Methods, Epistemology, and Science

• Focus Topics:

  • How sociologists acquire knowledge

  • Dialectics of social research

  • Theories, concepts, and variables

Understanding Reality in Sociological Research

• Key Question: How do we know what is real?

• Scientific Assertions:

  • Must be logically sound and empirically supported.

  • Methodology is essential for establishing real knowledge.

  • Definition: Methodology refers to the procedures of scientific investigation.

Ways of Knowing the Real

• Multiple ways people come to know the world:

  • Agreement Reality: Knowledge based on shared culture.

  • Other ways of knowing include:

    • Ordinary human inquiry

    • Tradition

    • Authority

Errors in Inquiry

• Problems with reliance on tradition and authority:

  • Inaccurate Observations: Misinterpretation of events or imprecise measurements.

    • Solution: Use accurate, reliable, and valid measurement tools.

  • Overgeneralization: Attributing patterns from a limited number of observations.

    • Solution: Employ large and representative samples, and replicate studies.

  • Selective Observation: Focusing on data that fits expectations while ignoring contrary data.

    • Solution: Include all relevant cases, not just deviant cases.

  • Illogical Reasoning: Making conclusions from flawed premises (e.g., gambler’s fallacy).

    • Solution: Ensure clear logic and rationale.

Perspectives on Reality

• Changing interpretations of reality over time:

  • Premodern View: Reality is as it appears.

  • Modern View: Subjective interpretation of reality.

  • Postmodern View: Denial of any objective reality.

Epistemology

• Definition: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature and acquisition of knowledge.

  • Key Questions:

    • What constitutes knowledge?

    • What are effective ways to acquire knowledge?

Components of Knowledge

• Justified True Belief:

  • Components:

    1. Belief exists.

    2. Belief is true.

    3. Reason for belief meets some standards.

Epistemological Perspectives

• Two Main Schools:

  • Rationalist School: Knowledge through reasoning (math, logic).

  • Empiricist School: Knowledge through sensory perception and experimentation.

Sociology and Epistemology

• Sociology straddles both: started from rationalism but increasingly empirical.

• Ideal sociological research supports theory with empirical evidence.

Science Foundations

• Definition: Science derives from Latin "scire" (to know).

• Assumptions of Science:

  1. Nature is orderly.

  2. Nature can be comprehended.

  3. Natural phenomena have natural causes.

  4. Nothing is self-evident.

  5. Knowledge emerges from experiences.

  6. Knowledge is superior to ignorance.

The Scientific Method

• Focuses on understanding the existence and operation of phenomena, not on normative evaluations.

Efficacy of Science

• Skepticism: Critical in science to question knowledge claims.

• Validity of claims may vary based on context; errors can arise from data or interpretation.

Relationship between Science and Epistemology

• Epistemological methods support the credibility of scientific knowledge over other knowledge forms.

Dialectics of Social Research

• Social research reduces uncertainty by systematically exploring relationships.

• Types of Research:

  • Academic (pure) research: Validates general statements on social processes.

  • Applied research: Practical implications.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• Research can be:

  • Quantitative: Uses numerical data.

  • Qualitative: Uses non-numerical data.

Research Strategies: Ideographic vs. Nomothetic

• Ideographic Strategies: Focus on individual cases.

• Nomothetic Strategies: Aim for general laws.

Research Approaches

• Two additional approaches:

  • Deduction: Conclusions drawn from established premises.

  • Induction: Recognizing patterns from observed data.

Purposes of Social Research

• Different research types include:

  • Exploratory Research: Investigates the nature of a problem.

  • Descriptive Research: Describes the characteristics of a problem.

  • Explanatory Research: Explains causal relationships in issues.

Sociological Theory

• Definition: Systematic explanation for observations on life.

  • Must be falsifiable and supported by empirical findings.

Concepts in Sociological Research

• Definition: Abstract representations of objects or phenomena.

• Functions:

  • Facilitates communication among scientists.

  • Provides perspectives for analyzing phenomena.

  • Classifies experiences for generalization.

Propositions

• Definition: Statements regarding relationships between concepts.

  • Examples:

    • Higher centralization correlates with lower employee commitment.

    • Lower commitment leads to higher job turnover.

Variables

• Definition: Characteristics or conditions that can vary.

• Attributes: Specific values of variables (e.g., male/female).

Variable Types

• Discrete Variables: Indivisible categories (e.g., race, religion).

• Continuous Variables: Infinitely divisible quantities (e.g., time, weight).

• Independent Variables (IV): Causes changes in dependent variables.

• Dependent Variables (DV): Changes depend on independent variables.

Relationships between Variables

• Examples:

  • Education vs. prejudice (how education may affect levels of prejudice).

Developing Sociological Theory

• Conceptualization involves precise definitions.

• Types of Definitions:

  • Conceptual Definitions: Use other concepts to describe.

  • Operational Definitions: Outline procedures to establish phenomena.

Alienation Example

• Definition of Alienation: A disconnection from collective social values and expectations.

• Difficult for empirical study but can be broken into measurable components.

Theoretical Levels in Sociology

• Four levels:

  • Ad-hoc classificatory systems: Basic categorization of data.

  • Taxonomies: Usually descriptive with defined categories.

  • Conceptual frameworks: Systems of propositions for analyzing behaviors.

  • Theoretical systems: Interrelated propositions allowing for predictions.

Example Theoretical Systems

• Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide:

  • Examines societal influences on individual behavior regarding suicide.

  • Classifies different types of suicide related to social integration levels.

Predictive Capability of Theoretical Systems

• Effective theories can predict outcomes based on established relationships.