Lecture+2+-+Research+Methods%2C+Epistemology%2C+and+Science
Lecture Overview
Lecture Title: Introduction to Research Methods, Epistemology, and Science
Focus Topics:
How sociologists acquire knowledge
Dialectics of social research
Theories, concepts, and variables
Understanding Reality in Sociological Research
Key Question: How do we know what is real?
Scientific Assertions:
Must be logically sound and empirically supported.
Methodology is essential for establishing real knowledge.
Definition: Methodology refers to the procedures of scientific investigation.
Ways of Knowing the Real
Multiple ways people come to know the world:
Agreement Reality: Knowledge based on shared culture.
Other ways of knowing include:
Ordinary human inquiry
Tradition
Authority
Errors in Inquiry
Problems with reliance on tradition and authority:
Inaccurate Observations: Misinterpretation of events or imprecise measurements.
Solution: Use accurate, reliable, and valid measurement tools.
Overgeneralization: Attributing patterns from a limited number of observations.
Solution: Employ large and representative samples, and replicate studies.
Selective Observation: Focusing on data that fits expectations while ignoring contrary data.
Solution: Include all relevant cases, not just deviant cases.
Illogical Reasoning: Making conclusions from flawed premises (e.g., gambler’s fallacy).
Solution: Ensure clear logic and rationale.
Perspectives on Reality
Changing interpretations of reality over time:
Premodern View: Reality is as it appears.
Modern View: Subjective interpretation of reality.
Postmodern View: Denial of any objective reality.
Epistemology
Definition: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature and acquisition of knowledge.
Key Questions:
What constitutes knowledge?
What are effective ways to acquire knowledge?
Components of Knowledge
Justified True Belief:
Components:
Belief exists.
Belief is true.
Reason for belief meets some standards.
Epistemological Perspectives
Two Main Schools:
Rationalist School: Knowledge through reasoning (math, logic).
Empiricist School: Knowledge through sensory perception and experimentation.
Sociology and Epistemology
Sociology straddles both: started from rationalism but increasingly empirical.
Ideal sociological research supports theory with empirical evidence.
Science Foundations
Definition: Science derives from Latin "scire" (to know).
Assumptions of Science:
Nature is orderly.
Nature can be comprehended.
Natural phenomena have natural causes.
Nothing is self-evident.
Knowledge emerges from experiences.
Knowledge is superior to ignorance.
The Scientific Method
Focuses on understanding the existence and operation of phenomena, not on normative evaluations.
Efficacy of Science
Skepticism: Critical in science to question knowledge claims.
Validity of claims may vary based on context; errors can arise from data or interpretation.
Relationship between Science and Epistemology
Epistemological methods support the credibility of scientific knowledge over other knowledge forms.
Dialectics of Social Research
Social research reduces uncertainty by systematically exploring relationships.
Types of Research:
Academic (pure) research: Validates general statements on social processes.
Applied research: Practical implications.
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Research can be:
Quantitative: Uses numerical data.
Qualitative: Uses non-numerical data.
Research Strategies: Ideographic vs. Nomothetic
Ideographic Strategies: Focus on individual cases.
Nomothetic Strategies: Aim for general laws.
Research Approaches
Two additional approaches:
Deduction: Conclusions drawn from established premises.
Induction: Recognizing patterns from observed data.
Purposes of Social Research
Different research types include:
Exploratory Research: Investigates the nature of a problem.
Descriptive Research: Describes the characteristics of a problem.
Explanatory Research: Explains causal relationships in issues.
Sociological Theory
Definition: Systematic explanation for observations on life.
Must be falsifiable and supported by empirical findings.
Concepts in Sociological Research
Definition: Abstract representations of objects or phenomena.
Functions:
Facilitates communication among scientists.
Provides perspectives for analyzing phenomena.
Classifies experiences for generalization.
Propositions
Definition: Statements regarding relationships between concepts.
Examples:
Higher centralization correlates with lower employee commitment.
Lower commitment leads to higher job turnover.
Variables
Definition: Characteristics or conditions that can vary.
Attributes: Specific values of variables (e.g., male/female).
Variable Types
Discrete Variables: Indivisible categories (e.g., race, religion).
Continuous Variables: Infinitely divisible quantities (e.g., time, weight).
Independent Variables (IV): Causes changes in dependent variables.
Dependent Variables (DV): Changes depend on independent variables.
Relationships between Variables
Examples:
Education vs. prejudice (how education may affect levels of prejudice).
Developing Sociological Theory
Conceptualization involves precise definitions.
Types of Definitions:
Conceptual Definitions: Use other concepts to describe.
Operational Definitions: Outline procedures to establish phenomena.
Alienation Example
Definition of Alienation: A disconnection from collective social values and expectations.
Difficult for empirical study but can be broken into measurable components.
Theoretical Levels in Sociology
Four levels:
Ad-hoc classificatory systems: Basic categorization of data.
Taxonomies: Usually descriptive with defined categories.
Conceptual frameworks: Systems of propositions for analyzing behaviors.
Theoretical systems: Interrelated propositions allowing for predictions.
Example Theoretical Systems
Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide:
Examines societal influences on individual behavior regarding suicide.
Classifies different types of suicide related to social integration levels.
Predictive Capability of Theoretical Systems
Effective theories can predict outcomes based on established relationships.