AP HUG Unit 4 Flashcards

8.1 Where are States Distributed?

1. State: an area organized by an established government, control over internal and foreign affairs, external affairs, defined territory, permanent population, and recognized by other states

Example: The largest state is Russia, which encompasses 17.1 million square kilometers or 11 percent of the world’s entire land area. 

2. Microstate: states with very small land areas

Example: The Vatican is the world’s smallest microstate at 0.44 square kilometers.

3. Sovereignty: independence from control of its internal affairs by other states

Example: Korea’s division into two countries, North and South America

4. Sovereign States: when a state has total control over its internal and foreign affairs

Example: Armenia is an example of a sovereign state. 

5. Territoriality: the process by which a land area (or land and water) is established under a jurisdiction 

Example: An established or recognized system of governance, or administrative control. 

6. Formal Uniform Region: an area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics 

Example: Countries and local government units are easily identified. 

8.2 Why Are States Challenging to Create?

8. Nation: a large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics, such as language and ethnicity, or by shared history

Example: The Korean nation. 

9. Nation-State: a group of people who share a common cultural characteristic such as language and ethnicity or shared history whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular nation 

Example: The nation-states in Europe that resulted from using language as the principal criterion for identifying ethnic groups. 

10. Self-Determination: the concept that nations have the right to govern themselves

Example: Nations have pushed to create nation-states because desire for self-rule is a very important shared attitude for many of them. 

11. Stateless Nation: a nation of people without a state that considers it home

Example: From chapter 7, the Kurds and the Basques are considered to be stateless nations. 

12. Multiethnic State: a state that contains more than one ethnicity; this describes almost every state in the world

Example: India, Nigeria, and Canada each have a diverse population with distinct ethnic identities. 

13. Multinational State: a state that contains more than one nation

Example: Russia is the largest multinational state, comprising 81 percent ethnic Russians and 185 ethnic groups among the remaining 19 percent. 

14. Multistate Nations: ethnic or cultural groups that exist across multiple state boundaries, forming a cohesive identity despite being divided by political borders

Example: The Kurds, who inhabit regions in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria, and the Roma people found across various countries in Europe.

15. Buffer States: a state that lies between two much larger and more powerful states

Example: Mongolia serves as a buffer state between Russia and China.

15. colony

16. Colonialism: an effort by one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles. 

Example: European states established colonies to promote Christianity, extract useful resources and to serve as captive markets for their products, and to establish relative power through the number of colonies claimed. 

17. Decolonization: the process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country

Example: Korea was freed in 1945 by Japan’s defeat in the war. 

18. Neocolonialism: the control of less developed countries by developed countries using economic, political, and cultural pressures

Example: The American invasion of Vietnam and Afghanistan. 

19. Internal Boundaries: political or administrative line that separates different regions, districts, or subdivisions within a larger governing entity

Example: School districts in America.

20. International Boundaries: a demarcation that separates two sovereign states, defining their territorial limits and jurisdiction

Example: The Rio Grande is a natural boundary that separates the United States and Mexico

21. Autonomous Regions: a type of administrative division within a country that has a certain degree of self-governance and power over its own affairs

Example: The Panama Canal Zone was an autonomous region managed by the United States until it was returned to Panama.

22. Semi-Autonomous Regions: a subdivision that has a degree of autonomy or self-governance, but not complete sovereignty

Example: Hong Kong within China.

23. Colonialism: an effort of one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose political, economic and cultural principles on that territory

Example:  European states established colonies elsewhere in the world to promote Christianity, extract useful resources and to serve as a captive markets for their products, and to establish relative power through the number of colonies claimed 

24. Imperialism: the policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, military force, and other means. 

Example: The British expansion to India, which resulted in their economic growth. 

8.3 Why Do States Face Threats?

25. Supranationalism/Supranational Organizations: the process of nation states organizing politically and economically into one organization or alliance, forming supranational organizations, where three or more countries form an alliance for cultural, economic, or military reasons

Example: The European Union has achieved supranational status because of the power afforded it by their member states, which supersede the powers of its individual states: it has its own currency and mandates trade agreements.

26. Democratization: the process of moving a nation's government from an authoritarian to a democratic system

Example: All South Africans could vote, is a classic example of democratization, the movement of a nation's government to full democratic participation.

27. Subnational Political Territorial Units: regions or entities within a country that possess a degree of autonomy or self-governance

Example: These areas can include states, provinces, territories, and municipalities, each with their own local governments and administrative structures.

28. Economies of Scale: the reduction in the per unit cost of production as the volume of production increases

Example: Stores such as Costco and Walmart utilize this principle by buying huge quantities of goods in order to receive low bulk prices, and they pass on the savings to their customers

29. Trade Agreements: a legal pact between two or more countries that outlines the rules and regulations for trade between them, aiming to reduce or eliminate barriers such as tariffs and quotas

Example: NAFTA is an excellent example of a trade agreement which is the North-American Free Trade Agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, established in 1994

30. Military Alliances: a formal agreement between nations that specifies mutual obligations regarding national security

Example: NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 for collective defense against aggression.

31. Balance of Power: a condition of roughly equal strength between opposing alliances

Example: The Cold War, so called because there was no actual fighting, is an example of the balance of power theory

32. Unitary State: most power is placed in the hands of central government officials

Example: France has a long tradition of unitary government in which a very strong national government dominates local government decisions. 

33. Federal State: strong power is allocated to units of local government in a federal state

Example: The federal state principle is embedded in the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.

34. Centripetal Force: a force that tends to unify people

Example: The national anthem of the United States of America. 

35. Centrifugal Force: a force that tends to pull people apart

Example: Differences in political ideas, such as being Democratic and Republican.

36. Failed States: a state or country that is no longer working in its political structure

Example: In the early 2020s, Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Lebanon, Libya, Mali, Myanmar, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen have all been described as failed states

37. Uneven Development: the unequal distribution of resources, wealth, and opportunities across different regions and populations

Example: some continents have been extensively developed, while others remain largely undeveloped

38. Ethnic Nationalist Movements: the collective ideas and actions of an ethnic nation designed to promote the identity and rights of an ethnicity in cultural, economic, and political spheres

Example: the Revolutionary War in the US, the French Revolution in France, or the 1848 uprising against Austrian rule in Hungary.

39. Independence Movements: efforts by groups or regions within a country to gain political autonomy and establish sovereignty from a governing authority

Example: Many Scottish people were campaigning for an independent Scottish national state, completely separate from England and the rest of Britain.

40. Devolution/Devolutionary Pressures: the breakup of a state/the transfer of some authority or power from a central organization or government to smaller organizations or government departments (seeding power from the federal government to the local areas)

Example: In spite of greater global political cooperation, local diversity has increased in political affairs, and individual ethnic groups are demanding more control over territory. 

41. Balkanization: the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities

Example: Balkanization led directly to World War I because the various nationalities in the Balkans dragged into the war the larger powers with which they had alliances. 

42. Ethnic Homogeneity:

41. Shatterbelt: a region experiencing continued pressures from internal and external forces resulting in conflict, separatist movements, and division; a region in which internal, geographical, cultural, religious, and political fragmentation is compounded by pressures from external major powers attracted by the region’s strategic location and economic resources

Example: 

42. Ethnonationalism: the result in actions that are leading to terror attacks against ethnic minority populations, many of which are recent immigrants, for cultures that are not part of the familiar region and culture

Example: Terrorist attacks led by ultra-nationalist sympathizers are responsible for terrorist attacks in the United States, the United KIngdom, Germany, and most recently in New Zealand. 

nationalism

43. Self-Determination: challenges existing notions of sovereignty by asserting that groups within a state have the right to seek independence or greater autonomy based on their unique identities

Example: The Scots were seeking “self-determination,” the right to determine the political character and direction of their own nation.

44. Ethnic Separatism: the advocacy for the separation of a particular ethnic group from a larger political entity, often driven by the desire for self-determination, autonomy, or independence

Example: The Kurdish struggle for independence in Turkey and Iraq and the Catalan independence movement in Spain.

45. Irredentism: the concept of reuniting a historical group that was divided 

Example: crimea 

46. Ethnic Cleansing: the systematic removal or extermination of an ethnic group from a particular territory, often through violent means

Example: The holocaust was an attempt of ethnic cleansing. 

47. Terrorism: the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious, or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation 

Example: The terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, September 11, 2001. 

48. Genocide 

48. Sepratist 

49. Separatist movements

48. European Union (EU): formerly known as the European Economic Community, the Common Market, and the European Community formed in 1958 with six members, was designed to heal scars from WWII (which had ended only 13 years earlier)

Example: 27 countries are part of the European Union. 

49. African Union (AU): an intergovernmental organization, established in 2002, to promote unity and solidarity of African states, to spur economic development, and to promote international cooperation

Example: The AU's headquarters are in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

50. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): a regional grouping that aims to promote economic and security cooperation among its ten members: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam

Example: ASEAN's purpose is to promote economic and cultural exchange among its member countries, maintain peace and stability in Southeast Asia, and establish relationships with foreign powers with similar aims.

51. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON): formed in 1949 with six members, a design to promote trade and sharing of natural resources in Communist Eastern Europe

Example: Ten countries ultimately joined COMECON, but it disbanded in 1991. 

52. United Nations (UN): an international alliance, a global organization that focuses on peace and security 

Example: The UN works on various issues including human rights, development, and humanitarian aid, impacting political processes, urbanization, and measures of development across the globe.

53. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): a military alliance among 16 democratic states in Europe, plus the United States and Canada

Example: When terrorists attacked the United States on September 11, 2001, NATO allies stood with America as they had also been attacked. 

54. The Warsaw Pact: a military agreement among Communist Eastern European countries

Example: The Warsaw Pact disbanded in 1991 following the end of communism in Eastern Europe. 

8.4 Why Do States Have Distinctive Geographic Structure?

55. Boundary: an invisible line that marks the end of a state’s territory

Example: The boundary between France and Spain follows the peaks of the Pyrenees Mountains, while the Alps separate France from Italy.

56. Frontier: a zone where no state exercises complete political control

Example: The space between Saudi Arabia and Yemen. 

57. Compact State: the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly: an ideal theoretical compact state would be shaped like a circle, with the capital at the center and with the shortest possible boundaries to defend 

Example: Poland is a relatively rounded shape, which enhances communications between all regions, especially when the capital is centrally located

58. Elongated State: states that are long and thin, which suffer from poor internal communications

Example: Chile, Vietnam, and The Gambia are long and thin. 

59. Prorupted State: compact states with a larger projecting extension, can disrupt

Example: Thailand, which has a long extension as part of its territory.

60. Fragmented State: a state that is divided into several discontinuous pieces of territory 

Example: The United States is Fragmented because Alaska and Hawaii are separated from the contiguous lower 48 states.

61. Perforated State: a state that completely surrounds another state. 

Example: South Africa, which surrounds Lesotho and Eswatini.

62. Landlocked State: a state that lacks a direct outlet to a sea because it is completely surrounded by other countries 

Example: Mali is an example of a landlocked state in Africa. 

63. Cultural Boundaries: the geographical term for the border between two different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups

Example: French being the official language of Quebec, Canada. 

64. Ethnic Boundaries: 

64. Religious Boundaries: a demarcation that separates different religious groups or areas where one religion predominates over another

Example: When British India became independent in 1948, the boundary that was created between the newly independent states of India and Pakistan was essentially a religious boundary which separated a predominantly Muslim Pakistan from a predominantly Hindu India. 

65. Language Boundaries: a boundary that operates different speakers

Example: Linguistic differences became the basis of the borders of France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Italy. 

66. Relic Boundaries: a boundary that no longer exists but still holds historical significance and may influence present-day cultural or social practices

Example: The boundary between East and West Berlin, as well as the boundary between East and West Germany.

67. Superimposed Boundaries: political barriers drawn in an area with complete disregard for the cultural, religious, and ethnic divisions within the people living there

Example: Boundaries in Africa, particularly the borders established during the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885.

68. Subsequent Boundaries: a political boundary that is established after a certain cultural or social landscape has developed

Example: The boundary between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland was drawn long after people were settled and reflected the religious differences between the two places.

69. Antecedent Boundaries: A boundary that already existed before the present settlement in that area occurred; natural boundaries long before those areas became populated. 

Example: The boundary between the USA and Canada was drawn by the colonizers before they colonized North America.

70. Geometric Boundaries: boundaries following straight lines and have little to do with the physical or cultural landscape (using longitude, latitude, and arcs)

Example: The 49th parallel between the United States and Canada. 

71. Consequent Boundaries: boundaries formed based on the cultural, ethnic, or social characteristics of a population, aiming to create harmony among different groups

Example: The border between Northern Ireland and Ireland, which was drawn as a consequence of disagreements between the majority Protestant north and the majority Catholic south on the island of Ireland.

72. Defined Boundaries: the specific and clear demarcation of a territory, outlining the limits of political control and governance defined by politicians, diplomats, treaty makers 

Example: An example of a defined political boundary is the U.S. border with Mexico

73. Delimited Boundaries: boundaries drawn on a map by geographers and cartographers 

Example: The drawn border between Alaska and Canada. 

74. Demarcated Boundaries: a defined line that marks the limits of a state's territory, established through physical markers or agreed-upon boundaries in maps 

Example: They are often marked by physical barriers such as fences or walls, but sometimes exist only on maps and legal documents.

75. Administered Boundaries: the enforcement and maintaining of a boundary by government; individual countries decide how strict or relaxed border crossings will be

Example: Levels are a hierarchy system to explain different concepts of administrative boundaries. For example, a city may belong to a municipality, which belongs to a country.

76. Demilitarized Zones: a region where military forces and equipment are prohibited, usually established as a buffer between hostile countries or factions to reduce the risk of conflict

Example: the Korean DMZ, which was created as a result of the Korean War to establish a buffer between North Korea and South Korea.

77. Lines of Control

78. Defacto Boundaries: not agreed upon and disputed but still functioning as a boundary

Example: Arunachal Pradesh, 

Disputed areas and boundaries: south china sea, paracel and spratly islands, arctic (application of unclos, resources that are disputed and transportation routes), antarctic (claims, overlapping or not, pg 301), unclos, median line principle(can be used to determine other boundaries) 

77. Berlin Conference: convened in 1884 with the intention of dividing up the continent of Africa among the various European imperial powers (Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Italy)

Example: The general act of the Conference of Berlin declared the Congo River basin to be neutral (a fact that in no way deterred the Allies from extending the war into that area in World War I); guaranteed freedom for trade and shipping for all states in the basin; forbade slave trading.

78. Land Boundaries: formed by physical features like rivers or mountains, providing a clear demarcation based on geography

Example: The defined lines that separate distinct political entities, such as countries, states, or territories, on the Earth's surface.

79. Maritime Boundaries: legal delineations that establish the limits of a state's jurisdiction over its adjacent sea areas, impacting issues such as resource allocation and navigation rights

Example: The United States borders the Bering Strait, which connects the Bering Sea in the Pacific Ocean to the Chukchi Sea in the Arctic Ocean.

80. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): an international treaty that outlines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans, covering areas such as territorial seas, exclusive economic zones, and continental shelves

Example: Each coastal State may claim a territorial sea that extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles (nm) from its baselines.

81. Arctic council 

81. International Waters/High Seas: the areas of the sea that are not under the jurisdiction of any country

Example: All water on the landward side of the baseline, foreign vessels have no right of passage. 

82. Territorial Seas: up to 12 nautical miles from shore (about 22 kilometers or 14 land miles) a state may set laws regulating passage by ships registered in other states

Example: Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia and the United States all regard parts of the Arctic as their respective 'national waters' (territorial waters out to 12 nautical miles) or 'internal waters'.

83. Economic Zones: between 24 and 200 nautical miles, a state has the sole right to the fish and other marine life

Example: The State has the sole right to exploit natural resources, such as fishing. 

84. Voting Districts: specific geographic areas defined for the purpose of electing representatives to government bodies

Example: Voting districts can be created for various levels of government, including local, state, and federal elections, and they are essential for organizing electoral processes

85. Redistricting: the process of redrawing the boundaries of electoral districts to reflect changes in population and ensure fair representation

Example: Redistricting is mandated by the U.S. Constitution and typically occurs every ten years after the national census, ensuring that districts reflect current population data.

86. Gerrymandering: redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power

Example: Gerrymandering takes two forms: cracking (like-minded voters are spread across several districts to prevent them from reaching a majority in any of them, thus wasting their votes) and packing (like-minded votes are stacked in one district to prevent them from affecting elections in other districts)

87. Chokepoint: geographic locations where the flow of people and goods can be constricted and choked off in the event of a conflict

Example: The Thermopylae Pass is perhaps the most famous example of a choke point, a geographical feature on land or at sea which an armed force is forced to pass at the risk of reducing their relative combat power against a numerically inferior opponent.

Chapter 7: Ethnicities

88. Blockbusting: real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their feats that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline

Example: Israel is a good example of being Balkanized

89. Redlining: a process by which financial institutions draw red-colored lines on a map and refuse to lend money for people to purchase or improve property within the lines

Example: Atlanta banks would lend in lower-income white neighborhoods but would refuse to lend in middle-income or upper-income Black neighborhoods.