Political Theories and Human Nature

CATHARINE MACAULAY

• Human Nature:

  • Humans are rational, equal, and capable of virtue.

  • Bad institutions cause corruption.

• The Subject:

  • A rational, independent citizen who is capable of self-governance if properly educated.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Truth is derived from reason and universal moral principles.

• Philosophy of History:

  • History is seen as a progression that improves through reason and reform.

  • Revolution is justified when existing power is corrupt.

• Political Solution:

  • Advocates for a democratic republic which includes:

  • Elections

  • Accountability

  • Balanced powers among different branches.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • To protect liberty, prevent domination, and create equal independence among citizens.

• Author Situatedness:

  • Macaulay is acknowledged as an Enlightenment woman who was excluded from politics, which influenced her support for equality and reform.

• Historical Context:

  • Influenced by the American Revolution and early debates surrounding the French Revolution, as well as anti-corruption movements.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Highest abstraction level by discussing universal equality while using some concrete political examples to illustrate arguments.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Advocates for a universal perspective; argues that all humans are equal and capable of virtue.

EDMUND BURKE

• Human Nature:

  • Humans are limited beings, emotional and guided primarily by habit and prejudice.

• The Subject:

  • Conceptualizes a person shaped by tradition, custom, and established social hierarchies.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Asserts that knowledge arises from tradition, inherited experience, and social wisdom.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Views history as changing slowly, while revolutions are seen as destructive to the social order.

• Political Solution:

  • Favors a constitutional monarchy that emphasizes strong traditions and slow, careful reform.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • To maintain stability, prevent chaos, and preserve a moral order in society.

• Author Situatedness:

  • An elite statesman within the 18th-century Parliament who favors hierarchy and prudent governance.

• Historical Context:

  • Responds to the crisis of the French Revolution while defending the British constitution.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Maintains low abstraction, relying on concrete national customs and traditions.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Represents a more singular viewpoint, emphasizing the importance of one national tradition with limited acceptance of strong differences.

HANNAH ARENDT

• Human Nature:

  • Describes humans as plural beings capable of action, which she refers to as "natality."

• The Subject:

  • A public actor who achieves freedom through interaction, speech, and action with others.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Knowledge develops through collective judgment, considering multiple viewpoints and shared experiences.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Views history as open and unpredictable, noting that change occurs through collective action.

• Political Solution:

  • Endorses a republican form of governance with strong public spaces including councils, assemblies, and civic participation.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • To protect a space for free action and speech among equals, facilitating democratic participation.

• Author Situatedness:

  • A Jewish refugee fleeing Nazism, with a focus on the issues of totalitarianism, statelessness, and human rights.

• Historical Context:

  • Influenced by the context of the Holocaust, Stalinism, the Cold War, and decolonization movements.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Operates at a high level of abstraction but provides numerous historical examples to support her claims.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Emphasizes strong plurality by asserting that politics arises from human differences.

IRIS MARION YOUNG

• Human Nature:

  • Posits that humans are socially positioned; shaped by group identities, including race, gender, and class.

• The Subject:

  • Describes a person who is embedded in a context of structures, groups, and social inequalities.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Establishes that knowledge is derived from lived experiences, social locations, testimonies, and perspectives of marginalized voices.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Argues that meaningful change occurs when structural injustices become apparent and institutions evolve.

• Political Solution:

  • Proposes group-differentiated citizenship, participatory democracy, and strategies for inclusion.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • Aims to end domination and create genuine participation for diverse and marginalized groups.

• Author Situatedness:

  • A feminist activist engaged in issues of systemic racism, sexism, and inequality.

• Historical Context:

  • Relevant discussions of identity politics, feminist theory, and urban inequality during the 1970s–1990s.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Exhibits low to medium abstraction; grounded in real-world experiences of injustice and struggle.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Advocates strong plurality, highlighting many groups with diverse needs and voices within society.

BHIKHU PAREKH

• Human Nature:

  • Views humans as cultural beings formed by their traditions and values.

• The Subject:

  • Considers a person as culturally shaped with multiple identities spanning ethnic, civic, and religious facets.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Advocates for the importance of intercultural dialogue, learning from differences, and unearthing blind spots.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Believes that change occurs through civic debates, educational pursuits, and cultural exchanges.

• Political Solution:

  • Endorses a multicultural democracy, conceptualized as a “community of communities.”

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • To foster equal respect across cultures and to promote peaceful coexistence.

• Author Situatedness:

  • An Indian-born British political thinker influenced by Gandhi, engaged in multicultural debate in the UK.

• Historical Context:

  • Context includes discussions on immigration debates, race relations, and the conclusions of the Parekh Report (2000).

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Medium level of abstraction; begins abstract but integrates practical examples for clarification.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Encompasses strong plurality, acknowledging that there are many ways of life and promoting unity through inclusive identities.

DONNA HARAWAY

• Human Nature:

  • Depicts humans as hybrids interconnected with technology, animals, and nature.

• The Subject:

  • Introduces the concept of “cyborg,” indicating that identity is mixed and not fixed.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Promotes the idea of “situated knowledge,” claiming that all knowledge is derived from specific social positions and contexts.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Asserts there is no singular narrative; highlights that relationships among humans, systems, and technology continuously reshape history.

• Political Solution:

  • Calls for coalitions, networks, and feminist politics that deconstruct rigid categories and binaries.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • Seeks to challenge domination and resist established binaries such as male/female and human/machine.

• Author Situatedness:

  • A feminist scholar in science studies whose work aligns with the rapid changes in technology during her time.

• Historical Context:

  • Clarifies her views in light of the 1980s feminist movements, the rise of biotechnology, and the development of cyber theory.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Operates at a high level of abstraction but remains grounded in real-world practices such as those in science labs and technology sectors.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Affirms strong plurality, recognizing that identities are numerous, fluid, and hybrid in nature.

ESMÉE MURDOCK

• Human Nature:

  • Depicts humans as ecological beings deeply connected to their land and environment.

• The Subject:

  • Portrays a person whose identity is shaped by race, colonial history, and experiences of environmental injustice.

• Knowledge / Epistemology:

  • Emphasizes the significance of embodied experience, memory, land-based knowledge, and the lived impacts of harm.

• Philosophy of History:

  • Proposes that history is shaped by colonial violence and extraction, positing that change is achieved through efforts of repair.

• Political Solution:

  • Advocates for decolonial environmental justice and governance that is centered around community and land stewardship.

• Purpose of Political Order:

  • Aims to restore land, repair historical harm, and address racial as well as environmental injustice.

• Author Situatedness:

  • Identifies as a Black feminist environmental philosopher focused on the intersections of race, ecology, and colonialism.

• Historical Context:

  • Engages with contemporary issues such as the climate crisis, environmental racism, and movements for resistance from Black and Indigenous communities.

• Level of Abstraction:

  • Operates at a medium level of abstraction, blending theoretical analysis with concrete environmental examples.

• Plurality or Singularity:

  • Acknowledges plurality, understanding that there are diverse experiences and narratives surrounding land, harm, and community interaction.