951 to 958

Notes: Confrontation and Détente (1955-1975) – Pages 951-958

I. Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• Nikita Khrushchev (USSR)

  • Soviet leader after Stalin’s death (1953).

  • Advocated "peaceful coexistence" but remained confrontational.

  • Infamously declared the USSR would "bury" Western capitalism.

  • Clashed with Mao Zedong over Soviet foreign policy.

• Dwight D. Eisenhower (USA, 1953-1961)

  • Continued the policy of containment.

  • Initially promoted military buildup but sought coexistence with the USSR.

  • Met with Khrushchev in 1955 (Geneva) and 1959 (Camp David).

• John Foster Dulles (USA, Secretary of State, 1953-1959)

  • Advocated a strong anti-Communist policy.

  • Urged "rollback" of Soviet power, but U.S. policy remained containment.

2. Key Events & Agreements

• 1955: Treaty on Austria

  • Ended the joint Allied occupation.

  • Austria became independent and neutral.

• 1955: Geneva Summit

  • First major U.S.-USSR meeting since WWII.

  • No formal agreements but improved diplomatic relations.

• 1959: Camp David Meeting

  • Eisenhower and Khrushchev discussed peaceful coexistence.

  • Raised hopes for mutual disarmament.

• 1960: Paris Summit Failure

  • USSR exposed U.S. spy flights over Soviet territory (U-2 incident).

  • Khrushchev withdrew, ending the diplomatic thaw.

II. Themes & Developments

1. Cold War Stabilization

• Europe remained divided (NATO vs. Warsaw Pact).

• The threat of direct military confrontation lessened.

• Superpowers recognized the need for nuclear coexistence.

2. Pressures for Coexistence

• Khrushchev emphasized "peaceful coexistence" but remained aggressive.

• Eisenhower supported containment but rejected war.

• 1955 Geneva Summit & 1959 Camp David Meeting aimed at easing tensions.

3. Failures & Renewed Tensions

• Khrushchev demanded an end to Western occupation of West Berlin (1958).

• U.S. refused; tensions continued.

• 1960 Paris Summit collapsed over U-2 spy plane revelation.

• Khrushchev’s UN speech denounced the U.S. and reignited Cold War rhetoric.

Key Takeaways

1. Détente periods existed but were fragile and easily disrupted.

2. Eisenhower and Khrushchev both sought peaceful coexistence but faced opposition.

3. NATO and the Warsaw Pact ensured a divided Europe, reducing the risk of direct war.

4. The U-2 spy plane scandal in 1960 ended hopes for long-term détente.

Notes: Confrontation and Détente (1955-1975) – Page 953

I. Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• Dwight D. Eisenhower (USA, 1953-1961)

  • Established the Eisenhower Doctrine, asserting U.S. defense of the Middle East.

  • Sent U.S. troops to Lebanon and Jordan (1958) to support pro-Western governments.

  • Contained Soviet influence in Suez Crisis (1956) without direct military intervention.

• Charles de Gaulle (France, President 1959-1969)

  • Opposed U.S. dominance in NATO and Cold War policies.

  • Withdrew France from NATO’s integrated military command (1966).

  • Advocated European independence from U.S. and Soviet influence.

2. Key Events & Agreements

• 1953: East Berlin Uprising

  • Soviet Union crushed anti-Communist riots in East Germany.

  • The U.S. provided moral support but no military aid.

• 1956: Hungarian Revolution & Polish Reforms

  • Soviets sent troops and tanks to suppress uprisings.

  • The U.S. condemned but did not intervene.

• 1956: Suez Crisis

  • Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, angering Britain, France, and Israel.

  • U.S. blocked British, French, and Israeli military action to avoid Soviet intervention.

• 1957: Soviet Union Launches Sputnik

  • First artificial satellite to orbit Earth.

  • Shocked the world and ignited the Space Race.

  • The U.S. responded by launching Explorer 1 (1958).

• 1958: Development of ICBMs

  • Soviets launched the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), capable of carrying nuclear warheads.

  • The U.S. quickly built its own ICBM arsenal, escalating the nuclear arms race.

• 1966: France Withdraws from NATO’s Military Command

  • De Gaulle demanded NATO move its headquarters from France.

  • France remained part of the alliance but distanced itself from U.S. military control.

II. Themes & Developments

1. The U.S. Cold War Strategy

• The U.S. accepted Soviet control over Eastern Europe but contained Communism elsewhere.

• Focused on strategic alliances in the Middle East (Eisenhower Doctrine) and Latin America.

• Assumed all global unrest was Soviet-inspired, often overlooking local political dynamics.

2. The Nuclear & Space Race

• The launch of Sputnik (1957) and ICBMs (1958) intensified Cold War competition.

• Mutual deterrence replaced the doctrine of "massive retaliation."

• Western European leaders, like de Gaulle, worried about U.S. commitment to their defense.

3. European Resistance to U.S. Hegemony

• France under De Gaulle challenged U.S. dominance in Western foreign policy.

• Advocated for a united Europe independent from U.S. and Soviet influence.

• France withdrew from NATO’s military command (1966), signaling European dissatisfaction.

Key Takeaways

1. The U.S. focused on containment globally but did not challenge Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe.

2. The launch of Sputnik and the development of ICBMs intensified Cold War military competition.

3. France, under De Gaulle, pushed for European independence from U.S. influence.

4. Mutual deterrence led to greater nuclear anxiety in Western Europe.

Notes: The Kennedy Years (1961-1963) – Page 954

I. Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• John F. Kennedy (U.S. President, 1961-1963)

  • Increased Cold War rhetoric: "Pay any price, bear any burden... to assure the survival of liberty."

  • Oversaw major Soviet-American confrontations during his presidency.

  • Took steps to close the perceived "missile gap" between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

• Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet Premier, 1953-1964)

  • Continued Soviet expansion and arms race policies.

  • Engaged in direct confrontations with Kennedy, including the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).

2. Key Events & Developments

• Global Political Changes by 1970

  • Decolonization:

    • The European colonial empires in Asia and Africa broke up.

    • Over 50 independent African republics emerged.

    • Several new states formed in Asia after WWII.

  • The rise of Communist China (1949) further shifted global power dynamics.

  • The Soviet Union expanded its influence in peripheral regions.

II. Cold War Tensions & Kennedy's Foreign Policy

1. U.S.-Soviet Confrontation

• The Kennedy administration saw heightened Cold War tensions.

• Kennedy pledged full U.S. commitment to defending democracy worldwide.

• The "missile gap" concern pushed Kennedy to strengthen U.S. military capabilities.

2. Decolonization & Global Shifts

• Many former colonies in Africa and Asia gained independence.

• The Cold War expanded beyond Europe into the newly independent nations.

• The Soviet Union and the U.S. competed for influence in these new states.

III. Key Takeaways

1. Kennedy increased Cold War tensions, pledging U.S. commitment to global democracy.

2. The world map changed significantly by 1970 due to decolonization.

3. The U.S. and Soviet Union competed for influence in newly independent nations.

4. Kennedy sought to close the perceived "missile gap" with the Soviets.

Notes: Kennedy, the Space Race, and Cold War Policies (Page 955)

I. Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• John F. Kennedy (U.S. President, 1961-1963)

  • Cold War Priorities:

    • "Missile gap" concerns led to military expansion.

    • Pledged that Americans would reach the moon before 1970.

  • Foreign Policy Initiatives:

    • Increased foreign aid to developing countries.

    • Founded the Peace Corps (young Americans assisting in Latin America, Asia, and Africa).

    • Created the Alliance for Progress (economic growth program for Latin America).

• Fidel Castro (Leader of Cuba, 1959-2008)

  • Initially viewed as a progressive leader, but later aligned with the Soviet Union.

  • U.S. concerns over his Communist ties led to tensions in Cuba.

II. Key Cold War Events & Policies

1. The Space Race & "Missile Gap" Concerns

• The Soviet Union's space achievements alarmed the U.S.

• Kennedy pledged a successful moon landing before 1970.

• The U.S. increased space exploration funding to compete with the Soviets.

2. Expansion of U.S. Foreign Aid & Influence

• Peace Corps: Sent young Americans to developing countries for social and economic aid.

• Alliance for Progress: Aimed to promote economic growth in Latin America.

3. Rising Tensions in Cuba

• Fidel Castro’s rise to power in Cuba (1959) created uncertainty.

• Initial optimism about Castro faded as he strengthened ties with the Soviet Union.

III. Key Takeaways

1. Kennedy’s administration focused on closing the "missile gap" and winning the Space Race.

2. U.S. increased foreign aid, founding the Peace Corps and the Alliance for Progress.

3. Fidel Castro initially appeared as a progressive leader but later aligned with the Soviets, heightening Cold War tensions.

Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• Fidel Castro (Cuban leader, 1959-2008)

  • Implemented a sweeping agrarian reform program.

  • Expropriated American corporate holdings.

  • Shifted toward Marxist-Leninist ideology and aligned with the Soviet Union.

  • Imprisoned or executed political opponents.

  • Championed international Communist revolution.

• John F. Kennedy (U.S. President, 1961-1963)

  • Inherited and approved the Bay of Pigs invasion.

  • Stood firm against Soviet aggression in Berlin.

  • Led the U.S. response to the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).

• Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet leader, 1953-1964)

  • Supplied Cuba with missiles and military aid.

  • Ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall (1961).

  • Backed down during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

II. Key Cold War Events

1. The Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961)

• A CIA-trained force of Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow Castro.

• The invasion failed due to inadequate air support and poor intelligence.

• Castro grew closer to the Soviet Union and declared Cuba a Marxist-Leninist state.

2. The Berlin Wall (August 1961)

• Over 3 million East Germans had fled to West Berlin by 1961.

• Soviet response: Built the Berlin Wall (a 28-mile concrete barrier).

• The Wall became a physical symbol of the Cold War.

• Hundreds were killed attempting to escape.

3. The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)

• Khrushchev sent nuclear missiles to Cuba to deter U.S. invasion.

• Kennedy imposed a naval blockade (quarantine) around Cuba.

• U.S. threatened full-scale nuclear retaliation if missiles were launched.

• Outcome: Khrushchev backed down and removed the missiles.

III. Key Takeaways

1. The Bay of Pigs invasion failed, strengthening Castro’s ties with the Soviet Union.

2. The Berlin Wall physically divided East and West Berlin, symbolizing Cold War tensions.

3. The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the U.S. and USSR to the brink of nuclear war, but diplomacy prevailed.

otes: The Berlin Wall and the Cuban Missile Crisis (Page 957)

I. Key People, Places, and Events

1. Key Leaders

• John F. Kennedy (U.S. President, 1961-1963)

  • Led the U.S. response during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

  • Maintained U.S. and NATO presence in West Berlin.

• Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet leader, 1953-1964)

  • Ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall (1961).

  • Placed nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter U.S. intervention.

  • Backed down during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

II. The Berlin Wall (August 1961)

• Built by East Germany (GDR) under Soviet direction.

• Stretched 28 miles through Berlin, topped with barbed wire and armed guards.

• Stopped mass emigration of East Germans to the West.

• Became a global symbol of Soviet repression.

• Hundreds were killed attempting to cross it.

III. The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)

1. Soviet Actions

• Khrushchev sent nuclear missiles to Cuba to defend against U.S. invasion.

• The missiles put U.S. cities within striking range.

2. U.S. Response

• Kennedy imposed a naval blockade (quarantine) around Cuba.

• Threatened full-scale nuclear retaliation if missiles were launched.

• U.S. nuclear bombers were airborne, ready to strike.

3. Resolution

• On October 24, 1962, Soviet ships turned back.

• Khrushchev agreed to remove Cuban missiles in exchange for:

  • A U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba.

  • (Secretly) U.S. removal of nuclear missiles in Turkey.

• Outcome: Averted nuclear war; led to the Hotline Agreement for direct U.S.-Soviet communication.

IV. Key Takeaways

1. The Berlin Wall divided East and West Berlin, reinforcing Cold War tensions.

2. The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the U.S. and USSR came to nuclear war.

3. Kennedy and Khrushchev's diplomacy defused the crisis, leading to improved communication between superpowers.

Notes: The End of the Cuban Missile Crisis and Its Consequences (Page 958)

I. Resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)

• October 28, 1962: The most ominous Cold War crisis ended.

• Dean Rusk (U.S. Secretary of State): Described it as an "eyeball-to-eyeball" confrontation.

• U.S. Secret Agreement: Privately signaled that American missiles in Turkey would eventually be removed.

• Soviet Withdrawal: Khrushchev agreed to remove Cuban missiles in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba.

II. Consequences of the Crisis

1. Political Fallout for Khrushchev

• Khrushchev lost face internationally.

• Weakened at home, criticized for backing down.

• 1964: Khrushchev was ousted from power by Soviet leadership.

• China ridiculed Khrushchev, accusing him of capitulation to the West.

2. Impact on the Cold War and the Arms Race

• Although tensions eased, both sides expanded their nuclear arsenals.

• Soviet leaders vowed to achieve nuclear parity with the United States.

• Lesson for the USSR: Never again would Soviet leaders show such recklessness in nuclear confrontations.

III. Key Takeaways

• The Cuban Missile Crisis ended peacefully, avoiding nuclear war.

• Khrushchev’s handling of the crisis led to his downfall in 1964.

• The arms race intensified as the USSR sought nuclear parity with the U.S.

• The U.S.-Soviet Hotline Agreement improved direct communication between superpowers.