Micro

Page 1: Introduction to Cells and Metabolism

• Focus on molecules, organelles, cells, and cellular metabolism.

Page 2: What is a Cell?

• Definition: Small units filled with a concentrated aqueous solution of chemicals.

• Enclosed by a membrane with the ability to manage DNA and RNA.

Page 3: What is Life?

• Characteristics of Living Things:

  • Growth and development

  • Nutrition

  • Respiration

  • Excretion

  • Response to stimuli

  • Adaptation to the environment

  • Reproduction

  • Death

Page 4: How Do Genes Evolve?

• Gene evolution occurs through:

  • Lethal changes

  • Selectively neutral changes

  • Beneficial mutations

• Patterns of mutation and natural selection drive evolution.

Page 5: Evolution Through Mutation and Selection

• Process:

  • Repetitive cycles of mutation and natural selection enable genetics to evolve.

  • Adaptations lead to improved environmental exploitation and reproductive success.

Page 6: Gene Generation and Modification

• New genes arise from existing ones via:

  • Gene modification through mutation.

  • Duplication leads to closely related gene pairs.

  • Combining existing genes forms hybrid genes.

  • Horizontal gene transfer involves DNA moving between cells.

Page 7: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Organisms

• Architecturally speaking:

  • Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes share structural differences and similarities in organelles and functions.

Page 8: Structure of Prokaryotic Cells

• Components:

  • Flagella, pili, nucleoid, ribosomes.

  • Structures supporting cellular functions and movement.

Page 9: Eukaryotic Cell Structure

• Key Organelles:

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth)

  • Golgi apparatus

  • Mitochondria

  • Nucleus (with chromatin, nucleolus, and nuclear envelope)

• Cytoskeleton includes microfilaments and microtubules.

Page 10: Functional Categories of Eukaryotic Organelles

• Functions:

  • Manufacturing, energy processing, support, movement, and communication.

Page 11: Similarities Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

• Basic Cellular Processes:

  • Carbon and nitrogen metabolism, energy cycles.

• Chemical Composition:

  • DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids shared between both.

Page 12: What About…?

• Other Entities:

  • Viruses, viroids, prions, and respective structures.

Page 13: Functionality of the Nucleus

• Based on the central dogma: DNA > RNA > Proteins.

• Nucleus houses genetic material for replication and RNA synthesis.

Page 14: The Chemical Nature of Life

• Discusses the molecular foundation of life.

Page 15: Naturally Occurring Elements in the Human Body**

• Elements contributing to 96% of body weight:

  • Oxygen (O, 65.0%), Carbon (C, 18.5%), Hydrogen (H, 9.5%), Nitrogen (N, 3.3%).

• Trace elements (e.g., Iron, Iodine) constitute less than 0.01%.

Page 16: Electrons Rule!

• Atom's chemical behavior is governed by electron distribution in electron shells.

Page 17: Atom and Electron Distribution

• Overview of atomic structure and electron shells for key elements (e.g., Hydrogen, Carbon).

Page 18: Molecule Shape and Bonding

• Molecule shapes affected by angles between atoms and bond types; bonds can rotate allowing shape changes.

Page 19: Covalent Bonds

• Formation: Atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds with specific shapes.

• Types: Polar and nonpolar covalent bonds influence molecular behavior.

Page 20: Carbon's Versatility

• Carbon can form up to four bonds, allowing diverse molecular structures (single/double bonds, polar/nonpolar variations).

Page 21: Electronegativity

• Atom's attraction for shared electrons varies, influencing bond characteristics.

Page 22: Importance of Polar Covalent Bonds

• Polar covalent bonds allow for hydrogen bond formation, impacting molecular interactions.

Page 23: Non-Covalent Bonds

• Types of weak bonds that facilitate molecular interactions without sharing electrons.

Page 24: Weak Chemical Bonds

• Weak bonds provide necessary interactions for molecular alignment and structure without strength of covalent bonds.

Page 25: Hydrogen Bonds

• Attraction between polar molecules involving hydrogen; weak but important for stabilization of macromolecules like DNA.

Page 26: Importance of Hydrogen Bonds

• Role in molecular structures: DNA stability, enzyme activity, and antibody functions.

Page 27: Other Non-Covalent Bonds

• Types: Ionic bonds, van der Waals forces; critical for molecular interactions and structural integrity.

Page 28: Function of Weak Chemical Bonds

• Weak bonds shape large molecules and influence biological processes through structural reinforcement.

Page 29: Molecular Recognition

• Biological specificity based on molecular shapes; similar shapes can lead to similar biological functions.

Page 30: Functions of Water in Organisms

• Water engages in biochemical reactions, provides support, allows for temperature regulation and waste removal through biochemical processes.

Page 31: Water's Resistance to Temperature Change

• High specific heat of water minimizes temperature fluctuations crucial for life, linked to hydrogen bonding.

Page 32: Cohesion and Adhesion in Water

• Properties of water facilitate transport in plants through cohesion and adhesion; critical for nutrient and water movement against gravity.

Page 33: Effects of pH

• pH levels influence molecular shapes, reaction rates, binding capabilities, and solubility.

Page 34: Variability in Carbon Skeletons

• Carbon skeletons vary in length, branching, or ring structure; affects molecular function and reactivity.

Page 35: Carbon Isomerism

• Types of isomers include geometric (cis/trans) and enantiomers; crucial for biological activity.

Page 36: Biological Importance of Enantiomers

• Effects of enantiomers in drug efficacy; specific stereochemistry plays a vital role in biological responses.

Page 37: Functional Groups

• Specific groups of atoms that confer distinct chemical properties; critical for organic molecule behavior.

Page 38: Hydroxyl Group Functionality

• Alcohols characterized by -OH; polar, allowing hydrogen bonding and solubility.

Page 39: Carbonyl Groups

• Ketones vs. aldehydes; vital in forming structural isomers found in sugars.

Page 40: Carboxyl Group Properties

• Carboxylic acids yield acidic properties; involved in metabolic reactions.

Page 41: Amino Group Functions

• Amines act as bases; key for protein structure and function as amino acids.

Page 42: Sulfhydryl Groups

• Important for protein structure; stability conferred through disulfide bridges.

Page 43: Phosphate Groups

• Key players in cellular metabolism and forming phospholipids for membrane structure.

Page 44: Major Types of Organic Molecules

• Categories: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids with specific bond types.

Page 45: Carbohydrates

• Key role in energy provision and structure; monosaccharides serve as fuel.

Page 46: Types of Sugars

• Classification of sugars based on carbon chain length: tri-, penta-, and hexoses.

Page 47: Isomeric Forms of Sugars

• Structural variation in glucose and galactose; implications for metabolic pathways.

Page 48: Polysaccharide Characteristics

• Polysaccharides composed of linked monosaccharides; energy storage and structural roles in plants.

Page 49: Lipids Definition

• Composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen; non-polar nature defines lipid characteristics.

Page 50: Triglycerides Structure

• Fats formed by glycerol bonded to fatty acids via ester bonds; essential for energy storage.

Page 51: Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids

• Comparison of saturated (single bonds) and unsaturated (double bonds) fatty acids; significance in nutrition and health.

Page 52: Phospholipid Structure

• Amphipathic nature catering to cell membrane formation; key for cellular integrity and function.

Page 53: Proteins Overview

• Comprised of amino acids; diverse structures lead to varied functions in biological systems.

Page 54: Amino Acids Structures

• Various structures and side chains determine the function and characteristics of proteins.

Page 55: Peptide Bonds

• Formation through the interaction of amino acids; defines protein synthesis.

Page 56: Protein Structure Levels

• Tertiary structure resulting from interactions leading to a protein's functional form; pivotal for biological activity.

Page 57: Intermolecular Bonding in Proteins

• In beta sheets and alpha helices; stability arises from hydrogen bonding throughout the polypeptide structure.

Page 58: Folding and Stability Factors

• Key interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic effects, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces) essential for maintaining structure.

Page 59: Quaternary Structure of Proteins

• Complexes formed by multiple polypeptides; can include different or identical subunits.

Page 60: Protein Folding in Cells

• Assistance by chaperones is crucial for proper folding and stabilization of proteins within cellular environments.

Page 61: Chaperones Role

• Facilitate protein folding, assembly, and maintenance of active conformations in the cellular milieu.

Page 62: Nucleic Acids Overview

• DNA and RNA functions in genetic information storage and expression; critical for cellular processes.

Page 63: Nucleotide Components

• Structure and function of nucleotides comprising DNA and RNA; central to genetic expression.

Page 64: DNA and RNA Structure

• Nucleotides connected through phosphodiester bonds establish polarity in nucleic acids.

Page 65: Base Complementarity in DNA

• Chargaff's rules highlight the pairing specificity between nucleobases; essential for double helix structure.