Micro
Page 1: Introduction to Cells and Metabolism
Focus on molecules, organelles, cells, and cellular metabolism.
Page 2: What is a Cell?
Definition: Small units filled with a concentrated aqueous solution of chemicals.
Enclosed by a membrane with the ability to manage DNA and RNA.
Page 3: What is Life?
Characteristics of Living Things:
Growth and development
Nutrition
Respiration
Excretion
Response to stimuli
Adaptation to the environment
Reproduction
Death
Page 4: How Do Genes Evolve?
Gene evolution occurs through:
Lethal changes
Selectively neutral changes
Beneficial mutations
Patterns of mutation and natural selection drive evolution.
Page 5: Evolution Through Mutation and Selection
Process:
Repetitive cycles of mutation and natural selection enable genetics to evolve.
Adaptations lead to improved environmental exploitation and reproductive success.
Page 6: Gene Generation and Modification
New genes arise from existing ones via:
Gene modification through mutation.
Duplication leads to closely related gene pairs.
Combining existing genes forms hybrid genes.
Horizontal gene transfer involves DNA moving between cells.
Page 7: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Organisms
Architecturally speaking:
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes share structural differences and similarities in organelles and functions.
Page 8: Structure of Prokaryotic Cells
Components:
Flagella, pili, nucleoid, ribosomes.
Structures supporting cellular functions and movement.
Page 9: Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Key Organelles:
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth)
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Nucleus (with chromatin, nucleolus, and nuclear envelope)
Cytoskeleton includes microfilaments and microtubules.
Page 10: Functional Categories of Eukaryotic Organelles
Functions:
Manufacturing, energy processing, support, movement, and communication.
Page 11: Similarities Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Basic Cellular Processes:
Carbon and nitrogen metabolism, energy cycles.
Chemical Composition:
DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids shared between both.
Page 12: What About…?
Other Entities:
Viruses, viroids, prions, and respective structures.
Page 13: Functionality of the Nucleus
Based on the central dogma: DNA > RNA > Proteins.
Nucleus houses genetic material for replication and RNA synthesis.
Page 14: The Chemical Nature of Life
Discusses the molecular foundation of life.
Page 15: Naturally Occurring Elements in the Human Body**
Elements contributing to 96% of body weight:
Oxygen (O, 65.0%), Carbon (C, 18.5%), Hydrogen (H, 9.5%), Nitrogen (N, 3.3%).
Trace elements (e.g., Iron, Iodine) constitute less than 0.01%.
Page 16: Electrons Rule!
Atom's chemical behavior is governed by electron distribution in electron shells.
Page 17: Atom and Electron Distribution
Overview of atomic structure and electron shells for key elements (e.g., Hydrogen, Carbon).
Page 18: Molecule Shape and Bonding
Molecule shapes affected by angles between atoms and bond types; bonds can rotate allowing shape changes.
Page 19: Covalent Bonds
Formation: Atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds with specific shapes.
Types: Polar and nonpolar covalent bonds influence molecular behavior.
Page 20: Carbon's Versatility
Carbon can form up to four bonds, allowing diverse molecular structures (single/double bonds, polar/nonpolar variations).
Page 21: Electronegativity
Atom's attraction for shared electrons varies, influencing bond characteristics.
Page 22: Importance of Polar Covalent Bonds
Polar covalent bonds allow for hydrogen bond formation, impacting molecular interactions.
Page 23: Non-Covalent Bonds
Types of weak bonds that facilitate molecular interactions without sharing electrons.
Page 24: Weak Chemical Bonds
Weak bonds provide necessary interactions for molecular alignment and structure without strength of covalent bonds.
Page 25: Hydrogen Bonds
Attraction between polar molecules involving hydrogen; weak but important for stabilization of macromolecules like DNA.
Page 26: Importance of Hydrogen Bonds
Role in molecular structures: DNA stability, enzyme activity, and antibody functions.
Page 27: Other Non-Covalent Bonds
Types: Ionic bonds, van der Waals forces; critical for molecular interactions and structural integrity.
Page 28: Function of Weak Chemical Bonds
Weak bonds shape large molecules and influence biological processes through structural reinforcement.
Page 29: Molecular Recognition
Biological specificity based on molecular shapes; similar shapes can lead to similar biological functions.
Page 30: Functions of Water in Organisms
Water engages in biochemical reactions, provides support, allows for temperature regulation and waste removal through biochemical processes.
Page 31: Water's Resistance to Temperature Change
High specific heat of water minimizes temperature fluctuations crucial for life, linked to hydrogen bonding.
Page 32: Cohesion and Adhesion in Water
Properties of water facilitate transport in plants through cohesion and adhesion; critical for nutrient and water movement against gravity.
Page 33: Effects of pH
pH levels influence molecular shapes, reaction rates, binding capabilities, and solubility.
Page 34: Variability in Carbon Skeletons
Carbon skeletons vary in length, branching, or ring structure; affects molecular function and reactivity.
Page 35: Carbon Isomerism
Types of isomers include geometric (cis/trans) and enantiomers; crucial for biological activity.
Page 36: Biological Importance of Enantiomers
Effects of enantiomers in drug efficacy; specific stereochemistry plays a vital role in biological responses.
Page 37: Functional Groups
Specific groups of atoms that confer distinct chemical properties; critical for organic molecule behavior.
Page 38: Hydroxyl Group Functionality
Alcohols characterized by -OH; polar, allowing hydrogen bonding and solubility.
Page 39: Carbonyl Groups
Ketones vs. aldehydes; vital in forming structural isomers found in sugars.
Page 40: Carboxyl Group Properties
Carboxylic acids yield acidic properties; involved in metabolic reactions.
Page 41: Amino Group Functions
Amines act as bases; key for protein structure and function as amino acids.
Page 42: Sulfhydryl Groups
Important for protein structure; stability conferred through disulfide bridges.
Page 43: Phosphate Groups
Key players in cellular metabolism and forming phospholipids for membrane structure.
Page 44: Major Types of Organic Molecules
Categories: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids with specific bond types.
Page 45: Carbohydrates
Key role in energy provision and structure; monosaccharides serve as fuel.
Page 46: Types of Sugars
Classification of sugars based on carbon chain length: tri-, penta-, and hexoses.
Page 47: Isomeric Forms of Sugars
Structural variation in glucose and galactose; implications for metabolic pathways.
Page 48: Polysaccharide Characteristics
Polysaccharides composed of linked monosaccharides; energy storage and structural roles in plants.
Page 49: Lipids Definition
Composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen; non-polar nature defines lipid characteristics.
Page 50: Triglycerides Structure
Fats formed by glycerol bonded to fatty acids via ester bonds; essential for energy storage.
Page 51: Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Comparison of saturated (single bonds) and unsaturated (double bonds) fatty acids; significance in nutrition and health.
Page 52: Phospholipid Structure
Amphipathic nature catering to cell membrane formation; key for cellular integrity and function.
Page 53: Proteins Overview
Comprised of amino acids; diverse structures lead to varied functions in biological systems.
Page 54: Amino Acids Structures
Various structures and side chains determine the function and characteristics of proteins.
Page 55: Peptide Bonds
Formation through the interaction of amino acids; defines protein synthesis.
Page 56: Protein Structure Levels
Tertiary structure resulting from interactions leading to a protein's functional form; pivotal for biological activity.
Page 57: Intermolecular Bonding in Proteins
In beta sheets and alpha helices; stability arises from hydrogen bonding throughout the polypeptide structure.
Page 58: Folding and Stability Factors
Key interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic effects, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces) essential for maintaining structure.
Page 59: Quaternary Structure of Proteins
Complexes formed by multiple polypeptides; can include different or identical subunits.
Page 60: Protein Folding in Cells
Assistance by chaperones is crucial for proper folding and stabilization of proteins within cellular environments.
Page 61: Chaperones Role
Facilitate protein folding, assembly, and maintenance of active conformations in the cellular milieu.
Page 62: Nucleic Acids Overview
DNA and RNA functions in genetic information storage and expression; critical for cellular processes.
Page 63: Nucleotide Components
Structure and function of nucleotides comprising DNA and RNA; central to genetic expression.
Page 64: DNA and RNA Structure
Nucleotides connected through phosphodiester bonds establish polarity in nucleic acids.
Page 65: Base Complementarity in DNA
Chargaff's rules highlight the pairing specificity between nucleobases; essential for double helix structure.