Theories

Crime and Criminals: Early Theories

Towards an Explanation of Crime

Spiritualism

• Crime was historically explained through supernatural causes, such as temptation by the devil or possession.

• Compurgation: A medieval practice where accused individuals swore oaths of innocence and provided character witnesses.

Blurring the Line Between Sin and Crime

• Civil and religious authorities merged → The justice system was influenced by religious beliefs.

• Rulers used religious fear to maintain control:

  • Diverted attention from the failings of the ruling class.

  • Blamed individuals for social problems rather than systemic issues.

Heretics and Witches

• People who challenged authority were labeled heretics and faced extreme punishment.

• Witchcraft accusations were often used against independent women without male protection.

• Salem Witch Trials (1600s, Massachusetts): Women were executed based on accusations of witchcraft.

Criminal Behavior & The Devil

• Puritans developed penitentiaries: A place for "penitents" (criminals) to reflect on their sins.

• Modern examples:

  • Jim and Tammy Bakker (1987): Televangelists who defrauded followers.

  • Killing of doctors who provided abortions (1990s).

  • Pat Robertson (2010) and American Family Association (2012): Linked crime to moral decline.

The Classical School of Criminology

• Shift from supernatural explanations to rational thinking.

• People are rational beings who weigh the consequences of their actions.

• Crime is caused by free will and hedonism (pursuit of pleasure, avoidance of pain).

• Punishment should be proportionate to the crime and focus on deterrence.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) – Classical School Leader

• Published On Crimes and Punishments (1764), criticizing Europe's harsh criminal justice system.

• Key principles:

  1. Laws should be clear and written.

  2. Presumption of innocence.

  3. Punishment should be proportionate to the crime.

  4. Punishment should fit the crime, not the criminal.

  5. Justice should be swift and certain to deter crime.

  6. Rehabilitation was not the focus—prevention was key.

Capital Punishment in Canada

• 1859: Death penalty for many crimes, including murder, rape, and even burglary with assault.

• 1865: Limited to murder, rape, and treason.

• Between 1867-1962: 710 executions in Canada.

The Four General Purposes of Prison

1. Retribution – Punishment for wrongdoing.

2. Incapacitation – Removing criminals from society.

3. Deterrence – Preventing future crimes.

4. Rehabilitation – Reforming offenders.

Example: David Milgaard (1969) – Wrongfully convicted and imprisoned for 23 years.

Limitations of the Classical School

• Crime persisted despite punishments.

• Equal punishments for the same crime led to injustice.

• Judges had no discretion in sentencing.

Neoclassical Theory of Crime

• Modified Classical School → Allowed for judicial discretion.

• Recognized individual differences in offenders (e.g., mental illness, age, motivation).

The Positivist School of Criminology

• Shifted from rationality to science – Used the scientific method to study criminals.

• Believed criminal behavior could be studied through biology and psychology.

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) – "Father of Modern Criminology"

• Applied Darwin’s evolutionary theory to crime.

• Theory of Atavism:

  • Criminals are "less evolved" than non-criminals.

  • Born criminals have distinct physical features (stigmata):

    • Sloping forehead

    • Facial asymmetry

    • Abnormal ear size

    • Long arms

    • Misaligned jaw

Types of Criminals (Lombroso)

1. Robbers: Small, shifting eyes, bushy eyebrows, twisted noses.

2. Murderers: Glassy, cold eyes, hawk-like noses.

3. Women: Less criminal because they are even more primitive.

Four Criminal Categories (Lombroso's Later Theory)

1. Epileptics – Neurological disorders linked to crime.

2. Criminally insane – Mental illness linked to crime.

3. Criminals of passion – Emotion-driven crime.

4. Criminaloids – Situational criminals.

Lombroso's Flaws & Contributions

• Flaws:

  • Methodology lacked scientific rigor.

  • Ignored social and economic factors.

• Contributions:

  • Shifted criminology toward studying criminals, not just crime.

  • Advocated for individualized punishment based on criminal type.

Biological Theories in the Early 20th Century

William Sheldon (1950s) – Somatotype Theory

• Linked body types to crime:

  1. Ectomorphs – Thin, introverted (least criminal).

  2. Mesomorphs – Muscular, aggressive (most criminal).

  3. Endomorphs – Round, easy-going.

1903: Goring’s Criminality & Intelligence Study

• Compared prisoners to non-criminal men.

• Found criminals had lower intelligence → Linked crime to "mental inferiority."

1930: Hooton’s Study

• Claimed criminals had biological differences (small ears, low foreheads).

1912: Goddard’s Intelligence & Crime Study

• Studied the Kallikak family – Argued "feeble-mindedness" led to crime.

• Flaw: IQ tests were culturally biased.

The Eugenics Movement

• Advocated sterilization of people with intellectual disabilities.

• Flawed assumption: Intelligence & crime are inherited.

• Canada’s forced sterilization program targeted marginalized groups.

The Statistical School (Early 1800s)

• Used data to study crime trends.

• Crime was not random but linked to social conditions like:

  • Education levels

  • Poverty

  • Urbanization

• Key finding: Crime patterns were consistent over time and space, suggesting social forces influenced crime.

Key Takeaways

• Crime explanations evolved from supernatural beliefs to rational and scientific theories.

• Classical criminology (Beccaria) emphasized free will and deterrence.

• Positivist criminology (Lombroso) introduced biological and psychological explanations.

• Modern criminology recognizes that both individual traits and social environments influence crime.

• Statistical criminology showed that crime is influenced by broader social forces.

Psychological Perspectives on Criminology

Examines criminality through personality and learning theories.

Two Main Assumptions in Psychological Theories of Crime

1. Offender Deficit Assumption

   • Suggests that criminals have psychological abnormalities that differentiate them from non-criminals.

   • Focus on mental illness, cognitive impairments, or personality disorders as explanations for crime.

2. Discriminating Traits Assumption

   • Criminals differ from non-criminals in key personality traits, such as:

     • Impulsivity (acting without thinking of consequences).

     • Aggression (higher tendency toward violent actions).

   • These traits may make individuals more likely to engage in risk-taking and antisocial behavior.

Application of These Assumptions

• Psychopathy & Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) → Lack of empathy and disregard for societal rules.

• Low Self-Control Theory (Gottfredson & Hirschi) → Criminals struggle with delayed gratification.

• Social Learning Theory (Bandura) → Criminal behavior is learned through observation and imitation.

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

• Freud proposed that human behavior is driven by unconscious forces.

• The three components of personality:

  • Id – Unconscious, pleasure-seeking, impulsive desires.

  • Superego – Moral conscience, controls behavior.

  • Ego – Balances the id and superego in rational decision-making.

• Trauma and suppression:

  • The ego suppresses traumatic experiences as a protective measure.

  • If unresolved, these repressed emotions "fester" and can lead to outbursts or criminal behavior.

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud argued that sexual desire is a fundamental part of personality development, and unresolved conflicts in these stages may lead to deviant behaviors:

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year)

   • Sucking (e.g., breastfeeding) provides pleasure.

   • Positive experiences allow progression to the next stage.

2. Anal Stage (1-3 years)

   • Holding or releasing bowel movements brings satisfaction.

   • Strict toilet training (e.g., shame for accidents) may cause later control issues.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

   • Self-exploration and curiosity about genitals.

   • Oedipus Complex (boys) / Electra Complex (girls) – Unconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

   • Unresolved guilt and shame can cause psychological conflicts.

4. Latent Stage (6-12 years)

   • Sexual feelings are dormant.

   • If issues remain unresolved from earlier stages, they may resurface later.

5. Genital Stage (12+ years)

   • Focus shifts to sexual relationships with others.

Criminal Behavior in Psychoanalytic Theory

• Crime may result from:

  • Id domination → Uncontrolled impulses.

  • Weak superego → Lack of moral restraint.

  • Inadequate ego → Poor balance between desires and morality.

• Wineman (1951): "Delinquent Ego" – Individuals with an underdeveloped ego struggle to control impulses, leading to delinquency.

• Guilt and crime:

  • Unresolved guilt may push individuals toward criminal behavior as a form of self-punishment.

  • Example: Someone feeling guilty for past actions may subconsciously seek punishment through crime.

Franz Alexander's Study of Criminal Behavior

• Applied Freud’s principles to criminal psychology.

• Identified four unconscious features in prisoners:

  1. Overcompensation for weakness

  2. Unresolved aggression

  3. Guilt leading to self-sabotage

  4. Rebellion against authority

Female Crime and Psychoanalytic Theory

• Freud suggested that women suffer from "penis envy" (a psychological conflict where girls unconsciously desire male genitalia).

• As children, they believe they lost their penis as a form of punishment (psychological repression of perceived loss).

• Menstruation serves as a reminder of this perceived loss.

• If penis envy is not adequately resolved, it can lead to:

  • Neuroticism (emotional instability, anxiety, or excessive worry).

  • Aggression and revengefulness (hostility toward others, especially men).

  • Uncontrollable rebelliousness, which may result in criminal behavior (acts defying societal norms and laws).

Psychoanalytic Treatment

• Freud’s solution was to help women accept their "appropriate" sex role (traditional roles as wives and mothers).

• Criticism: This theory is highly gender-biased and outdated, assuming women’s mental health depends on conforming to patriarchal roles.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theory

• Expensive and time-consuming (6-8 sessions cost ~$1,200).

• Lack of scientific evidence.

• Gender bias (e.g., Freud’s views on women).

• Tautological (circular reading where a theory or statement repeats the same idea without adding new information, making it true by definition rather than evidence. This is often used to criticize theories that explain crime by simply restating the obvious) 

Evolutionary Theory & Crime (Charles Darwin)

• Survival of the fittest – Humans are driven to ensure the survival of their DNA.

• Men vs. Women:

  • Men are more aggressive → Higher involvement in violent crime.

  • Women focus on child-rearing → Less need for aggression.

• Implication: Criminal behavior is biologically determined.

Evolutionary Theory Revisited: Social Concern Theory (Angew)

• Rejects the idea that humans are purely self-interested.

• Argues that prosocial behavior (cooperation, kindness) is also a survival mechanism.

Criticisms of Evolutionary Theory

1. Normalizes and excuses criminal behavior (implies crime is natural and unavoidable).

2. Suggests criminal behavior is predetermined (reduces personal responsibility and limits rehabilitation efforts).

3. Difficult to test scientifically (based on hypothetical assumptions about early human behavior).

Social Concern Theory (Agnew)

Four Elements of Social Concern:

1. Care about the welfare of others – Concern for the well-being of others in society.

2. Desire close ties to certain others – The desire to form cooperative and emotional bonds with specific individuals.

3. Follow certain moral intuitions – Adherence to moral values and intuitions, and punishment for those who violate these moral norms.

4. Conform to social norms – Following societal expectations and sanctioning those who fail to do so.

Situations Where Evolutionary Advantage is Provided by Social Concern:

1. Kin Protection – Protecting close relatives, ensuring the survival of shared genes.

2. Mate Selection – Choosing mates based on traits that increase reproductive success.

3. Reciprocity – Engaging in mutual exchanges that benefit both parties.

4. Survival – Cooperation and concern for others enhance collective survival in a group.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development & Crime

• Young children’s morality differs from adults.

• Criminals may fail to develop higher levels of moral reasoning.

  • Example: A person at a low moral stage may justify theft because they "need it," whereas someone at a higher stage understands societal consequences.

Stages of Moral Development:

1. PRECONVENTIONAL (3-7 years old)

   • Avoid Punishment – Behavior is driven by avoiding punishment.

   • Obtain Rewards – Actions are guided by self-interest and the pursuit of rewards.

2. CONVENTIONAL (8-13 years old)

   • Belong and Be Accepted – Seeking approval and acceptance from others.

   • Obey Rules and Regulations – Following societal rules to maintain order and gain approval.

3. POST-CONVENTIONAL (Adulthood)

   • Make and Keep Promises – Actions based on mutual respect and upholding personal commitments.

   • Live Moral Imperatives – Adhering to universal ethical principles, even if they conflict with laws or rules.

Eysenck’s Personality Theory & Crime

• Criminal behavior is linked to psychoticism (paranoia, detachment) and mental stability.

• High psychoticism → More criminal tendencies, as individuals with high psychoticism are more prone to antisocial and aggressive behavior.

Personality Scales:

1. Introversion/Extraversion Scale

   • Highly extraverted – Sociable, impulsive, aggressive.

   • Highly introverted – Introspective, inhibited.

2. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability Scale

   • Neurotic – Anxiety, restlessness.

   • Emotional stability – Calm, stable emotions.

3. Psychoticism/Mental Stability Scale

   • High psychoticism – Cold, impersonal, hostile, odd, antisocial, paranoid, inhumane, lacking in human feelings, strange.

   • Mental stability – Emotionally stable, rational, compassionate.

Gottfredson & Hirschi (1990) The General Theory of Crime

• Low self-control causes deviance and criminal activity.

• The authors proposed that early childhood experiences can produce low levels of self-control, which result in higher levels of deviance throughout the lifespan.

Personality of People with Low Self-Control (often developed by age 7):

• Self-centered – Focused on their own needs and desires.

• Inability to defer gratification – Immediate rewards are preferred over long-term benefits.

• Lack of diligence and tenacity – Difficulty sticking with tasks or goals.

• Risk-seeking – Engaging in behaviors that involve potential danger or harm.

• Impulsive – Acting without thinking about the consequences.

• Insensitive to needs of others – Lack of empathy or concern for others' well-being.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) & Crime

• DSM: The official classification of psychiatric disorders.

• Diagnosis of disorders related to crime:

  • Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) → Requires the individual to be 18+ years old.

  • Psychopathy is a severe subtype of APD.

Antisocial Behavior

• Antisocial behavior refers to actions that are opposed to the norms/expectations of society and often cause distress to others.

Norms:

• Established standards of behavior maintained by society.

  • Informal norms – Unwritten rules that guide behavior (e.g., social etiquette, customs).

  • Formal norms – Official rules and laws (e.g., legal requirements).

Examples of Antisocial Behavior:

• Parking in a handicap parking stall without authorization

• Littering

• Loud partying that inconveniences neighbors

• Bullying

• Destructive behaviors (e.g., vandalism)

• Stealing

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

1. Failure to conform to social norms – Repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest (e.g., criminal behavior).

2. Deceitfulness – Repeated lying, using aliases, or conning others for personal profit or pleasure.

3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead – Acting without thinking about consequences or failing to plan.

4. Irritability and aggressiveness – Repeated physical fights or assaults.

5. Reckless disregard for safety – Disregarding the safety of oneself or others.

6. Consistent irresponsibility – Repeated failure to maintain consistent work behavior or honor financial obligations.

7. Lack of remorse – Indifference to or rationalization of harming others.

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) vs. Psychopathy

David Lykken's Perspective:

• APD may reflect two separate personality disorders:

  • Sociopaths: Born with relatively normal temperaments. Their behavior is often traced to factors like parental neglect, delinquent peers, poverty, or extremely low/high intelligence.

  • Psychopaths: Born with temperamental differences that make them more prone to antisocial behaviors.

Robert Hare's Perspective:

• APD is estimated to be 3-4 times more common than psychopathy, both in prisons and the general population.

• Because APD does not fully encapsulate psychopathy, Hare advocates for recognizing psychopathy as a separate disorder in the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).

Russell Williams

• Colonel and Commander of the Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Trenton, Ontario.

• An elite Canadian pilot with a prestigious career in the military.

Convictions (October 2010):

1. Murder of Corporal Marie-France Comeau.

2. Murder of Jessica Lloyd.

3. 2 sexual assaults.

4. 83 counts of fetish burglaries.

Psychopaths and the Limbic System

• Psychopaths show less emotion-laden activity in several parts of the limbic system of the brain, which is involved with emotions, memory, and attention.

• Limbic System Functions:

  • Emotions – Governs emotional responses such as fear and pleasure.

  • Memory – Plays a role in the formation and recall of memories.

  • Attention – Helps focus attention on relevant stimuli.

• Amygdala:

  • Some evidence suggests that the amygdala, which is critical for processing emotions like fear, may be smaller in psychopaths. This could contribute to their reduced emotional response and lack of empathy.

Psychopaths and the Superior Temporal Gyrus

• Prison Population Studies:

  • Up to 90% of prisoners have been found to have Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD), but only 15-25% satisfy the criteria for psychopathy.

• Cognitive Processing in Psychopaths:

  • Psychopaths have difficulty processing abstract words and understanding metaphors, which suggests a functional abnormality in the right anterior superior temporal gyrus.

• Superior Temporal Gyrus:

  • This area of the brain is believed to be involved in:

    • Regulation of the amygdala, which processes emotions like fear.

    • Higher cognitive processing of fear-related experiences, which could explain why psychopaths have impaired emotional responses to fear and lack empathy (Quirk et al., 1997).