Political Geography: State Shapes and Borders

Focus within AP Human Geography on how state shapes and borders influence governance, culture, and interaction within a global context.

Territorial Morphology: The Shape of States

Compact

Defined as having a shape where distance from the center to any boundary is minimal, facilitating easier governance. This shape often results in more concentrated resources and administrative efficiency. Communication tends to be more effective due to shorter travel distances.Examples: Switzerland and Hungary. Both nations exhibit effective governance structures that leverage their compact shapes.

Prorupted

A compact shape with a large projecting extension, which can create unique strategic advantages but also governance challenges. This morphology may lead to issues like devolution, where a region seeks to become independent or gain more autonomy. The elongated section can result in governance difficulties, particularly in areas far from the central government.Examples: Democratic Republic of Congo and Thailand. In these countries, the prorupted shapes influence political dynamics and resource allocation.

Elongated

Characterized by a long and narrow shape, which can complicate governance due to the stretch of territory and accessibility issues. Elongated states may struggle with providing equitable services and representation, often leading to regional disparities. The cultural and economic differences between distant regions can create tension.Examples: Chile and Gambia. Both states face unique challenges related to their elongated shapes, affecting transportation and national unity.

Fragmented

States consist of several disconnected pieces of territory, often in the form of islands. Fragmentation introduces significant governance challenges as the government must coordinate policies and services across disparate areas, which can lead to alienation and underrepresentation of certain regions.Examples: Indonesia and the Philippines. These nations contend with logistical and cultural challenges due to their fragmented nature, impacting national identity and policy implementation.

Perforated

A state that completely surrounds another state, leading to unique interactions and sometimes tensions between the involved states. The surrounding state exerts influence over the surrounded state's access to resources and trade routes, creating dependency.Examples: South Africa surrounding Lesotho. The political implications of such a relationship often lead to discussions about sovereignty and dependence.

Microstates

Very small states with usually homogeneous populations, often facing limited resources and economic vulnerabilities. These states often serve specific roles within international relations, such as finance hubs or tourist destinations.Examples: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Singapore. Each microstate has developed strategies to maintain sovereignty and economic viability despite their size.

Exclaves and Enclaves

• Exclaves: Territories separated from the main part of the state by another state. While they are not landlocked, they may face unique challenges related to accessibility and governance. Example: Kaliningrad, a Russian exclave bordered by Poland and Lithuania, faces geopolitical complexities due to its separation from mainland Russia.

• Enclaves: Areas of one state surrounded completely by another state, often resulting in unique demographic and political situations. Enclaves can symbolize historical conflicts or cultural identities. Example: Nagorno-Karabakh, an Armenian territory surrounded by Azerbaijan, exemplifies long-standing territorial and ethnic disputes.

Boundaries

Physical Boundaries

Determined by natural features such as rivers, mountains, and valleys. These boundaries can change over time due to natural events such as erosion or tectonic shifts.Example: The median-line principle is often used in lakes and rivers to establish maritime boundaries between nations.

Cultural Boundaries

Defined by cultural differences such as language, religion, and ethnicity. These boundaries can lead to fragmentation and conflict, as seen in regions with diverse nationalities. Example: The Caucasus region is highly fragmented culturally and politically, resulting in significant regional tensions.

Geometric Boundaries

Characterized by straight lines or imaginary lines that do not accommodate cultural or physical landscapes, often drawn for administrative, colonial, or political reasons.

Balkanization and Shatter Belts

Balkanization

The process where a state breaks down due to conflicts among nationalities or ethnic groups, often resulting in new political entities. Example: Historical and recent conflicts in the Balkans and Caucasus regions exemplify the fragmentation and shifting borders resulting from nationalist movements.

Boundary Types

• Antecedent Boundary: Established before the area was populated and often aligns with physical features.

• Subsequent Boundary: Drawn after settlement, influenced by cultural or social aspects, often resulting from negotiations or conflicts.

• Superimposed Boundary: Placed by outside forces without regard to existing cultural patterns, frequently leading to disputes and conflicts.

• Relic Boundary: Old boundaries that are no longer functional but still exhibit cultural or political relevance, shaping contemporary identity and governance.

Boundary Disputes

• Positional (Denominational): Disputes over the exact location of a boundary, often due to differing interpretations of treaties or agreements. Example: Tensions between India and China over the Assam border in the mountains.

• Territorial: Disputes related to ownership of land, frequently emerging from historical claims or colonial legacies. Example: The Kashmir territorial dispute between India and Pakistan is a notable example.

• Resource Allocation: Conflicts arise over access and control of natural resources, leading to diplomatic tensions or military confrontations. Example: The oil-related conflict between Kuwait and Iraq.

• Functional (Operational): Disputes focus on how a boundary is managed or administered, often leading to issues with trade and immigration policies. Example: Policy disagreements at the USA-Mexico border regarding immigration and trade.

Law of the Sea

UNCLOS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, effective since 1994, establishes guidelines that govern international maritime law, including territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, and continental shelf rights. This framework is essential for managing disputes related to ocean resources and navigation.

Current Issues in Maritime Boundaries

• Disputes in the South China Sea involve multiple countries, with conflicting claims impacting regional stability and international relations.

• Arctic territorial claims have heightened due to climate change, leading to military presence and competition over natural resource access.

Gerrymandering

Refers to the manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party or class over another. It often undermines the principle of fair representation, leading to convoluted district shapes that distort electoral outcomes. Various strategies and impacts demonstrated by different electoral maps have sparked discussions on electoral reform, accountability, and voters' influence in democratic processes.