AP U.S. Government & Politics – Foundations of American Democracy: Comprehensive Study Notes

Participatory, Pluralist, and Elite Democracy

• Participatory democracy: Direct citizen involvement; legitimacy through participation but impractical at large scales.

• Pluralist democracy: Policy from competition among organized interest groups; protects minorities but may favor well-funded groups.

• Elite democracy: Decisions by a small group of leaders for efficiency; limited citizen participation and risk of unconstrained power.

Declaration of Independence

• Purpose: Justify independence from Britain, declare political philosophy (unalienable rights), announce independence.

• Arguments: People have unalienable rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness); governments derive power from consent of the governed; people can alter/abolish destructive governments.

• Influences: John Locke (natural rights, social contract), Montesquieu (separation of powers).

• Key phrases: “All men are created equal,” governments are instituted to secure rights.

Articles of Confederation

• Purpose: First U.S. constitution to unify states during/after Revolutionary War.

• Legislative branch: Unicameral, each state one vote.

• National government powers: Declare war, make treaties, maintain army, resolve state disputes.

• Limitations: No power to tax or regulate interstate commerce; no executive or judiciary; difficult to amend (unanimous consent).

• Main problems: Weak central government, no independent revenue or enforcement.

• Event showing weakness: Shays’ Rebellion (1786) highlighted inability to respond to unrest.

Constitutional Convention (1787)

• Original purpose: Revise Articles of Confederation; resulted in drafting a new Constitution.

• Representation plans:

  • Virginia Plan: Bicameral, population-based representation.

  • New Jersey Plan: Unicameral, equal representation per state.

  • Great Compromise: Bicameral; House (population) and Senate (equal, 2 senators per state).

• Compromises:

  • Three-Fifths Compromise: Enslaved people counted as 3/5 for representation/taxation.

  • Commerce Compromise: Congress regulated interstate/international commerce, but could not tax exports; deferred ban on slave trade until 1808.

  • Electoral College: Indirect presidential election system.

Constitution: Structure, Powers, and Principles

• Preamble: Introduces goals, legitimacy from “We the People.”

• Articles:

  • I: Legislative Branch.

  • II: Executive Branch.

  • III: Judicial Branch.

  • IV: State relations (Full Faith and Credit Clause).

  • V: Amendment process.

  • VI: Supremacy Clause, federal law supreme.

  • VII: Ratification process.

• Branches: Legislative (make laws), Executive (enforce laws), Judicial (interpret laws).

• Powers:

  • Expressed (enumerated): Specifically listed (e.g., coin money).

  • Implied: Inferred via Necessary and Proper Clause to execute expressed powers.

• Bill of Rights: Protects individual liberties, limits federal power; added to address Anti-Federalist concerns.

• Principles:

  • Separation of powers: Divides government to prevent power concentration.

  • Checks and balances: Each branch limits others.

  • Federalism: Power divided between national and state governments.

  • Limited government: Government powers restricted.

  • Popular sovereignty: Authority from consent of the governed.

• Key clauses:

  • Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause): Article I, Section 8, Clause 18. ext{N&P Clause} enables Congress to enact laws needed to execute its enumerated powers.

  • Supremacy Clause: Article VI, Clause 2. Federal law takes precedence over conflicting state law.

  • Full Faith and Credit Clause: Article IV, Section 1. States recognize other states’ acts/records.

• Federalists vs Anti-Federalists:

  • Federalists: Favored ratification, strong national government, checks and balances.

  • Anti-Federalists: Opposed ratification, feared centralized power, demanded Bill of Rights.

• Federalist Papers: Written by Madison, Hamilton, Jay to advocate ratification.

  • Federalist No. 10: Large republic controls factions.

  • Federalist No. 51: Checks and balances preserve liberty.

  • Brutus No. 1: Anti-Federalist critique; feared large republic, elastic clause, lack of Bill of Rights.

Federalism: Definition, Powers, and Terminology

• Definition: Power divided between national and state governments.

• Types of powers:

  • Enumerated: Listed (e.g., coin money).

  • Concurrent: Shared (e.g., tax).

  • Reserved: State-retained (e.g., regulate intrastate commerce).

• Terms:

  • Dual federalism (layer cake): Clear division of powers.

  • Cooperative federalism (marble cake): National and state work together.

• Fiscal federalism: Grants.

  • Categorical grants: Specific purpose, conditions.

  • Block grants: Broader areas, fewer strings.

Landmark Cases

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):

  • Issue: Power to establish national bank? State tax federal institution?

  • Holding: Congress could establish bank (Necessary and Proper Clause); state could not tax (Supremacy Clause).

• United States v. Lopez (1995):

  • Issue: Congress’s power under Commerce Clause to regulate guns in school zones?

  • Holding: No, Gun-Free School Zones Act exceeded Commerce Clause authority (not economic activity).

Connections, Implications, and Real-World Relevance

• Ongoing debates: Federal vs. state power (healthcare, education).

• Protecting individual rights vs. security.

• Balance between direct participation, representative governance, and elite influence.

Summary References and Key Terms

• Three theories of representative democracy.

• Core constitutional concepts, powers, and clauses.

• Major compromises and mechanisms.

• Landmark documents and papers.

• Landmark cases.

• Critical dates: 1787, 1786, 1808, 1819, 1995.