Page 1

• Major differences between Jews, pagans, and Christians

  • Jews: monotheistic, follow Torah, await the Messiah

  • Pagans: polytheistic, diverse beliefs in gods and goddesses

  • Christians: belief in Jesus as the Son of God, salvation through him

• Reasons for Christians being "anti-Jewish"

  • Historical conflicts, blame for crucifixion of Jesus

  • Different religious beliefs and practices

• Attitude of Christian Church and early Church fathers towards learning

  • Embraced learning, philosophy, and science

  • Integrated classical knowledge with Christian teachings

• Influence of St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas

  • St. Augustine blended Platonic philosophy with Christianity

  • Thomas Aquinas blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity

• Charlemagne's Carolingian Renaissance

  • Inspired by medieval values like education, art, and culture

  • Promoted learning and preservation of knowledge

• Aristotelian philosophy in supporting medieval and Renaissance ideals

  • Provided a framework for understanding the natural world

  • Influenced theological and philosophical thought

• Impact of the Black Death

  • Devastated Europe, leading to social and economic upheaval

  • Resulted in labor shortages, decline in population, and changes in societal structure

• Salic Law and the Hundred Years' War

  • Salic Law's inheritance rules led to disputes over the French throne

  • Contributed to the outbreak and continuation of the Hundred Years' War

Page 2

• Dark Ages (300-1000 AD)

  • Lack of historical sources, limited urban life, low literacy rates

  • Transition from ancient to medieval world, rise of Christianity

• Importance of the period from 300 to 1000 AD

  • Key questions on the fall of the Roman Empire and rise of Christianity

  • Influence of figures like Augustine of Hippo and Charlemagne

• Early Christian beliefs and practices

  • Focus on Jesus' resurrection and exaltation

  • Development of Christian hymns, prayers, and sermons

Page 3

• Early Christian proclamation

  • Worship of Christ, anticipation of his return

  • Emphasis on Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah

• Pauline eschatology and Christian beliefs

  • Baptism in the name of Jesus for repentance and resurrection

  • Justification by faith in Christ for both Jews and Gentiles

Page 4

• Paul's doctrine of justification by faith

  • Gentiles justified by faith in Jesus, not by following Jewish laws

  • Conceptualization of salvation through different models

  • Christ's death as a means of salvation for humanity

Page 5

• God accepts penalty payment by raising Jesus from the dead

  • Humans can trust God to find Christ's death sufficient

  • Those who have faith in Christ's death are treated as not guilty

  • Justified or put into right standing with God

• Two models of salvation: legal and participationist view

  • Legal model: salvation through faith in Christ's death

  • Participationist view: salvation from cosmic power of sin through Christ's victory

• Baptism unites believers with Christ's victory over sin and death

• Paul's view on salvation models not conflicting

• Gospel of John prologue describes Jesus as the Word made flesh

Page 6

• Christians unite faith and reason due to the centrality of doctrine

• Differences between Jews, pagans, and Christians

  • Christians took worship seriously as a truth claim

  • Pagan philosophers did not defend paganism rationally until later

• Beginning of anti-Semitism due to misinterpretation of "the Jews" in Gospel of John

• Book of Hebrews emphasizes Jesus' superiority over Jewish prophets, Moses, and priests

Page 7

• Jesus is superior to Jewish prophets, Moses, and priests in the Book of Hebrews

• Christ's sacrifice is perfect and offered only once

• New covenant in Christ replaces the old covenant based on the Law

• Christ is the reality foreshadowed in the Hebrew Bible

• Many Jews rejected the idea of Jesus as the Messiah due to differing expectations.

Page 8

• Conflict between Christianity and Judaism

  • Christians believed their religion was the true Judaism

  • Insisted that the only way to God was through the death of Jesus

  • Claimed old Judaism followers were damned

• Animosities and tensions

  • Exacerbated as Christianity became Gentile religion

  • Christians looked to Scriptures to validate beliefs

  • Examples from Prophets used to show God rejected Jews

• Melito's sermon

  • Accused Israel of deicide for killing Jesus

  • Described the killing of Jesus as an insult to God

• Emergence of deicide

  • Melito's sermon marked the first recorded instance of deicide

Page 9

• Christian animosity towards Judaism

  • Increased in 2nd and 3rd centuries

  • Became significant after Constantine's conversion in 4th century

• Impact of Constantine's conversion

  • Christianity gained power with the support of the Roman Empire

  • Led to persecution of Jews, burning of synagogues, and killings

• Reasons for anti-Jewish sentiment

  • Christians perceived Jews as rejected by God

  • Animosity fueled by Constantine's conversion and power shift

• Persecution of Christians

  • Not due to religious beliefs but seen as public nuisances

• Image problem of early Christians

  • Suffered from negative perceptions and slanders

  • Accused of engaging in incest and cannibalism during rituals

Page 10

• Misconceptions about Christians

  • Accusations of engaging in incest and cannibalism during worship

  • Descriptions of Christians' rituals as horrific and sacrilegious

• Persecution of Christians by authorities

  • Seen as problems due to refusal to participate in public ceremonies

• Pagan authors' views on Christians

  • Tacitus labeled Christians as a "pernicious superstition"

  • Pliny the Younger called them "obstinate" and "mad" adherents of a "depraved superstition"

• Refusal to worship other gods

  • Christians believed in only one true God, leading to conflicts with state and local gods.

Page 11

• Pagans found it nonsensical to worship only one god and not others

  • Polytheists believed in worshipping multiple gods

  • Not worshipping all gods was seen as unpatriotic

• Calamities were believed to be caused by gods' anger at lack of acknowledgment

  • Christians faced blame for disasters due to not worshipping gods

• Early Christians faced persecution for not worshipping gods

  • Persecution started at grassroots level by family or friends

  • Roman governors intervened in cases of mob violence against Christians

Page 12

• Christians adopted anti-Judaic rhetoric by the second century

  • Accused Jews of misinterpreting Scriptures and rejecting their Messiah

• Constantine's conversion was crucial for Christianity

  • Constantine attributed success to God of Christians

  • Edict of toleration for Christians issued in 313 AD

• Constantine called the Council of Nicaea in 325

  • Bishops gathered to establish consensus on faith and practice

  • Nicaean Creed addressed disputes like Arianism

Page 13

• Constantine saw the Christian church as a unifying force for the empire

  • Called the Council of Nicaea to unite bishops on faith

• Conversion to Christianity became popular after Constantine's favors

  • Roman Christianity became the official state religion under Theodosius I

Page 14

• Different early Christian groups like Gnosticism, Marcionites, and Ebionites existed

• Nicene Creed outlined core beliefs of Christianity

• Belief in one God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit was central to Christianity

Page 15

• Christianity before Constantine

  • Martyrs and confessors were seen as heroes and spiritual elite.

  • Confessors were individuals who openly professed their faith before Roman officials.

  • Confessors were considered equivalent to a second baptism, ensuring salvation.

• Impact of Constantine's Conversion

  • Constantine's conversion led to opportunistic converts, diluting the meaning of Christianity.

  • Ascetics, hermits, and monks became popular post-Constantine.

  • Antony, a hermit, lived a life of asceticism in Egypt, inspiring many.

• Evolution of Christian Heroism

  • Post-Constantine era saw various religious virtuosos in the Roman Empire.

  • Monasticism emerged as the most popular form of Christian heroism.

Page 16

• Unconventional Religious Movements

  • Grazers lived by consuming grass, aiming to rid themselves of humanity.

  • Holy fool movement in Syria defied social norms to rely solely on God.

  • Stylites lived atop poles, with Simian the Stylite being a prominent figure.

• Asceticism Advocated by Church Fathers

  • Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine supported ascetic ideals.

  • Asceticism aimed to make individuals more angelic and closer to God.

  • Ascetics believed to attain a state of perfection akin to Adam and Eve in paradise.

Page 17

• Constantine's Impact on Christianity

  • Constantine's conversion led to a shift in Christian practices and beliefs.

  • The influx of opportunistic converts diluted the essence of Christianity.

  • Ascetics, hermits, and monks gained popularity post-Constantine.

Page 18

• Scholarly Pursuits in the Middle Ages

  • Boethius and Cassiodorus contributed to preserving Roman learning.

  • St. Benedict of Norcia is considered the father of western monasticism.

  • St. Isidore of Seville continued the Roman encyclopedic tradition in a Christian context.

Plotinus

• Concept of God by Plotinus

  • Borrowed from Plato to define a new concept of God.

  • Placed the supreme being above the "forms" in a transcendent manner.

  • Characteristics of the One included simplicity, being above intellect, and incomprehensibility.

Page 19

• Fighting battle in dream world

  • Realization of never being away from home upon waking up

• All souls are fundamentally one

  • Caught between intellect and body

• God as the creator of the world

  • Platonic forms as ideas in the Mind of God

• St. Augustine

  • Influential thinker in the later Roman Empire

  • Known for his writings' intellectual influence

• Augustine's life and career

  • Reflect broader changes of the time

• Augustine's conversion from Manichaeism to Christianity

  • Influence of St. Ambrose's sermons

• Manichaeism beliefs

  • Dualist religion

  • Explanation for the problem of evil

• Influence of Neoplatonism on Augustine's beliefs

  • Asceticism and vegetarianism for liberation

Page 20

• Neoplatonism and its influence on Augustine

  • Blending of Plotinus's ideas with Christianity

• Augustine's role as the bishop of Hippo

  • Blending of Bible and Platonism

• True happiness in loving what is eternal

  • Philosophers seeking ultimate reality in God

• Memory and remembrance of God

  • Influence of St. Ambrose's sermons

• Concepts from Augustine's writings

Page 21

• Augustine's views on creation and evil

  • Evil as a lack in creation

• Sin as perversity in the will

  • Free will to love the eternal good

• True freedom in choosing God

  • Sin as a form of bondage

• Love as weight and direction of the soul

  • Obedience and understanding in faith and grace

• Doctrine of Predestination

  • God's foreknowledge and choice in salvation

Page 22

• Grace as a free gift from God

  • Doctrine of Predestination and salvation

• Original Sin and its impact on human nature

  • Necessity of sacraments for salvation

• Augustine's attitude towards science

  • Interpretation of scripture in light of scientific knowledge

Page 23

• Augustine's interpretation of Genesis

  • Focus on creation and scientific inquiry

• Importance of rational interpretation of scripture

  • Christians' understanding of nature and science

Page 24

• St. Augustine emphasizes the importance of Christians accurately interpreting scripture.

  • It is disgraceful and dangerous for non-believers to hear Christians speaking nonsense about scripture.

  • Knowledge of nature is essential for interpreting scripture correctly.

  • Understanding of scripture should evolve with advancements in natural knowledge.

• Augustine's approach to scripture interpretation contrasts with modern fundamentalist views.

  • He interprets scripture based on the actual meaning rather than a literal interpretation.

  • Disagrees with the idea of creation happening in six literal days.

• Augustine respects science and aligns the Bible with scientific understanding.

Page 25

• Augustine believes that intricate knowledge of the natural world is not necessary for all Christians.

  • Basic faith is essential for the average Christian, while advanced Christians need knowledge of natural science.

• The Christian Church and early Church Fathers valued learning, philosophy, and science.

• Augustine blends Platonic philosophy with Christianity by interpreting scripture based on deeper meanings rather than literal interpretations.

The Rise of Islam and the Islamic Science

• The Islamic Empire had a translation movement from 750-1000, translating Greek, Persian, and other texts into Arabic.

• Al-Kindi emphasized the importance of seeking truth wherever it is found.

• The House of Wisdom in Bagdad was a center for translation and learning.

• Paper production, learned from Chinese prisoners, aided the translation movement.

• Albert the Great and St. Thomas Aquinas contributed significantly to blending Aristotelian philosophy with Christian thought.

• Albert's work established Aristotelian thought in Western Christendom.

• Thomas Aquinas' proofs for the existence of God include arguments from motion, efficient cause, and possibility and necessity.

Page 26

• Albert the Great was a key figure in interpreting Aristotle's philosophy in Western Christendom.

• He emphasized empirical work and observation in natural philosophy.

• Albert was declared the patron Saint of Natural Scientists.

• St. Thomas Aquinas, influenced by Albert, provided proofs for the existence of God based on motion, efficient cause, and possibility and necessity.

• Aquinas argued for the existence of a necessary being, God, whose essence is to exist.

Page 28

• Proof from Natural Gradation

  • Thomas Aquinas presents a weak proof based on natural gradation.

  • He argues that there is a paradigm for every quality, appealing to Aristotle's Physics and Logic.

  • The existence of something truest, best, noblest, and most being is inferred from gradation.

  • Aquinas concludes that there must be a cause for all beings, which he identifies as God.

• Argument for the Governance of the World

  • Aquinas presents a teleological argument based on the observation that natural bodies act towards an end.

  • He asserts that intelligent beings direct natural things towards their end, which he identifies as God.

  • Modern philosophers view the last two arguments as weaker compared to the third.

  • Aquinas' arguments rely on medieval culture and Aristotle's logic and epistemology.

Page 29

• God's Role in Creation

  • Aquinas asserts that the universe was created by God at the first moment in time, contrary to the Greek belief in its eternity.

  • He emphasizes God as the sole creator and the final end of the universe's teleology.

  • Aquinas argues that evil is a measure of imperfection and not an essence, aligning with the doctrine that "the end of everything is good."

• Aquinas on Human Sexuality

  • Aquinas discusses human sexuality in the context of marriage and sin.

  • He argues against simple fornication, considering it a sin according to divine law.

  • Aquinas examines the theological end of the sexual act and its relation to reproduction.

  • He defends the family institution and emphasizes the role of parents in raising and educating offspring.

Page 30

• Aquinas on Homosexuality and Contraception

  • Aquinas addresses homosexuality, positioning it just below homicide and citing Biblical sources against it.

  • He condemns contraception as it frustrates procreation, aligning with Aristotelian teleology.

• Aquinas on Political Society

  • Aquinas views political society as part of God's plan for human creatures, emphasizing the need for social life and order.

  • He contrasts with St. Augustine's view on the state, seeing civic life as a means to express human virtue and achieve moral values.

  • Aquinas accepts Aristotle's idea that man is a political animal, highlighting civic life as a way to enhance virtue and fulfill human nature.

Page 32

• Separation of Church and state

  • Higher and lower power both derive from a supreme power

    • Lower does not derive from the higher

    • Both derive from a supreme authority higher than both

  • Spiritual power (church) is higher, secular power is lower

    • Both derive from the supreme power, God

  • Powers are autonomous, do not have to obey each other

    • Secular power subordinate to lower powers in matters of salvation

    • State supposed to obey church in matters of heresy

    • Secular power obeyed in civil matters

• Thomas Aquinas' view on spiritual and temporal power

  • Spiritual power greater, temporal lesser

  • Both autonomous, derive power from God

  • Jurisdictional limits of Church and state power

• Four levels of law

  • Eternal Law, Divine Law, Natural Law, Human Law

Page 33

• Blend of Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity by Thomas Aquinas

• Issues of Grace - Dionysius, Augustine, and Aquinas

  • Dionysius' view of the Trinity as divine One

  • Augustine's view of God as intelligible

  • Concept of the supernatural in reconciling Augustine and Dionysius

• Reconciliation of East and West by Thomas Aquinas

• Medieval schools and universities establishment

• Charlemagne's Carolingian Renaissance

  • Conversion of Saxons to Christianity

  • Presentation of Christianity in a form aligned with Saxon culture

Page 34

• Concept of elevating grace by Aquinas

  • Grace elevates human nature to see God

  • Distinctively Roman Catholic notion of grace

• Translation of the Heliand into Old Saxon

• Comparison of Gospel Luke and the Heliand's version

  • Liberties taken in recounting the gospel in the Heliand

Page 35

• Comparison of Gospel Luke and the Heliand's version continued

• Jesus portrayed as a Chiefton in the Heliand, taking liberties in the retelling

• Actions of Peter and the disciples depicted differently in the Heliand

• Differences in the portrayal of events in the Garden of Gethsemane between the Gospel Luke and the Heliand

Page 36

• The Carolingians sponsored missionary activity among pagans and initiated ecclesiastical reform within the empire.

  • Carolingian clergy had lower quality, with poorly educated priests and bishops behaving like lay aristocrats.

  • Carolingians regularized and extended the parish system to ensure access to priests and religious services for all Christians.

• Louis the Pious and Benedict of Aniane supported monastic reform, imposing the Rule of St. Benedict on monasteries.

• Charlemagne promoted learning and scholars, leading to the Carolingian Renaissance.

  • Scholars read classical literature for practical purposes, unlike the humanists of the Italian Renaissance.

Page 37

• Charlemagne's practical interest in scholarship was linked to ecclesiastical reform.

  • He aimed to correct garbled texts and restore classical Latin pronunciation for better understanding and communication with God.

• The Carolingian Renaissance focused on establishing accurate religious texts and improving education, especially for the clergy.

• Charlemagne attracted scholars to his court at Aachen, making it an intellectual center.

  • Important scholars included Einhardt, Paul the Decon, Theodolf of Orleans, and Anglo-Saxons like Alcuin of York.

• The scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance were mainly clerics, distinguishing it from the Italian Renaissance led by laypeople.

Page 38

• Charlemagne's court at Aachen became a significant intellectual hub.

• The scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance were mainly clerics, unlike the laypeople-led Italian Renaissance.

• Charlemagne's conquests led to the establishment of new monasteries, creating major centers for scholarship between the Rhine and Elbe Rivers.

Page 39

• Alcuin and other scholars worked on preparing new editions of texts like the Bible and the Rule of St. Benedict

  • Removing scribal errors was a monumental task

  • Had to find multiple copies, arrange them chronologically for the purest text, and produce error-free versions

  • Searched libraries across Europe for texts

• Book production in the 9th century surpassed the preceding centuries

  • 50,000 books copied in the 9th century

• Importance of correcting and copying the Bible and the Rule of St. Benedict

• Charlemagne aimed for a single Christian liturgy across the empire

• Standardization of spelling and pronunciation of Latin

• Increased attention to classical pagan literature due to text restoration

• Use of classical writers like Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid

• Suspicion towards classical literature by scholars of the time

Page 40

• Charlemagne and Louis the Pious worked on increasing schools for clergy to improve Latin

• Curriculum in monasteries included Latin, Psalms, Bible, prayers, religious celebrations, and grammar

• Limited success in establishing schools due to lack of interest

• Improvement in education for bishops but not parish priests

• Introduction of standardized testing for priests

• Long-term consequences of the Carolingian Renaissance on education and lifestyle

• Development of Carolingian minuscule handwriting for easier reading

• Evolution of Latin into romance languages

• Laws requiring translation of Latin into vernacular for mass understanding

• Establishment of schools in monasteries and cathedrals by Charlemagne's edict

• Growth of Cathedral schools into universities in the 12th century

• Teaching based on the traditional seven liberal arts

Page 41

• Emergence and growth of universities in the 13th century

• Not all cathedral schools turned into universities

• University of Paris faculties: arts, law, medicine, theology

• Importance of universities for economic life of towns

• Students entering universities at 14-15 years old

• Majority of students concentrated in the faculty of arts

• Few students proceeding to higher faculties like law, medicine, and theology

• Transformation of intellectual landscape by Aristotelian corpus

• Replacement of Platonism with Aristotelian thought

• Rise of scholasticism based on Aristotle's writings

• Arts curriculum at Paris focused on Aristotle by 1260

Page 42

• Economic importance of universities for towns

• Students earning bachelor's degrees in 3-4 years

• Few students pursuing master degrees in law, medicine, or theology

• Theology being the most rigorous program in medieval universities

• Arrival of Aristotelian corpus transforming Latin West's intellectual landscape

• Development of scholasticism based on Aristotle's writings

• Expansion of trivium and quadrivium to include works on scientific topics

• Shift from Neo-Platonism to Aristotelian thought in education.

Page 43

• Scholasticism and Disputations

  • Aristotle's works were required reading in Medieval universities.

  • Scholasticism was a result of combining Aristotle's corpus with the Medieval university system.

  • The scholastic format revolved around questions and commentaries.

  • Disputations were fundamental to the scholastic method.

  • Disputations involved a respondent, an opponens, and a master providing a true solution.

  • Public disputations like quodlibeta were held twice a year and attracted many spectators.

Page 44

• Disputative Method in Writings

  • The disputative method was used in writings like St. Thomas Aquinas' Summa Theologia.

  • Questions were answered and refuted systematically.

  • Commentaries were written on authoritative texts like the Bible and Aristotle's works.

Page 45

• Contributions of Scholastic Method

  • Scholastic method contributed to the development of scientific inquiry methodology.

  • Emphasis on secondary causes over primary causes in naturalism.

  • God's direct intervention in the world was viewed as producing miracles, which were rare.

  • Integration of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian theory in the Middle Ages.

Page 46

• Aristotle's Influence in the Middle Ages

  • Aristotle's monumental influence on European universities and civilization.

  • Aristotelian system of causality with four causes: material, formal, efficient, and final.

  • Purpose-driven universe concept aligned well with Christian philosophy.

  • Hierarchical cosmos and the Great Chain of Being reinforced social structures and the Church's supremacy.

Page 47

• Theology and Science in the Middle Ages

  • Theology considered the queen of sciences due to the study of God's unchangeable nature.

  • Intellects contemplating astronomy began to challenge Aristotelian views, leading to the origins of modern science.

  • Aristotle's views on politics and the state, emphasizing man as a political animal and the state as a natural association.

Page 48

• State and Society in the Middle Ages

  • Aristotle's influence on the concept of the state as a natural and good entity.

  • The state seen as beneficial for the fulfillment and happiness of individuals.

  • Class structure in the Middle Ages based on Aristotelian concepts of the Great Chain of Being.

  • Tripartite division of societies based on work, prayer, and ruling classes.

Page 49

• Nobility in the Great Chain of Being

  • Class of knights invented in the 12th century

  • Monopoly of weapons in the 14th century

  • The Great Chain of Being:

    • God created the universe and ordered it

    • King at the head

    • Aristos with arms, peasants as legs and feet

  • Ptolemaic universe with Earth at the center

  • Main concepts:

    • Top of the chain closest to God

    • Humans between angels and beasts

    • Ranks can be further divided

    • Top rank is God's power

    • Souls of the damned at the center of the Earth

  • Division of ranks:

    • Angels into nine ranks

    • Animal hierarchy led by the lion

    • Plant hierarchy led by mighty oaks

Page 50

• Social Hierarchy

  • King, Nobility, Gentry, Yeoman farmer, Husbandmen, Cottagers, Laborers

  • King: wealthiest, owned 5% of land

  • Nobility: 50-60 families with inheritable titles

    • Primogeniture: firstborn inherits land

    • Affinities: had servants, estate managers, clients

  • Gentry: knights, esquires, plain gentlemen

    • Owned 10-15% of land

    • Oversaw local government, served as sheriffs, local justices

  • Yeomanry: independent landowners

    • Salary: 40-2 pounds per year

    • Worked the land, may have had servants