IB History - Independence Movement of India

INDIA: Rise to Independence

1. Ideology and Nationalism

A major factor in India’s independence movement was the growth of Indian nationalism. Nationalists increasingly argued that India had the right to swaraj, meaning self-rule.

Key ideas

Swaraj
Self-rule became a central goal of the Indian National Congress, especially after the early moderate phase of petitioning and negotiation.

Swadeshi
The Swadeshi movement emphasized Indian self-reliance and the boycott of British goods. It became especially important after the Partition of Bengal in 1905, when many Indians protested British attempts to divide Bengal along religious lines.

Radical nationalism
Leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal, often called Lal-Bal-Pal, pushed a more assertive form of nationalism. They supported boycott, direct action, and broader political mobilization.

Home Rule Leagues, 1916
The Home Rule movement, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant, demanded self-government within the British Empire. It helped make the demand for self-rule more popular and nationwide.

Gandhian nationalism
After 1919, Gandhi transformed Indian nationalism into a mass movement. His ideology of satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, allowed ordinary Indians to participate in the struggle.

Key dates

• 1885 — Indian National Congress founded

• 1905 — Partition of Bengal and growth of Swadeshi movement

• 1916 — Home Rule Leagues and Lucknow Pact

• 1919 — Rowlatt Acts and Amritsar Massacre

• 1920–1922 — Non-Cooperation Movement

• 1930 — Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement

• 1942 — Quit India Movement

• 1947 — Indian independence and Partition

Historiography

Bipan Chandra argues that Indian nationalism developed through a long process of anti-colonial consciousness, where Indians increasingly saw British rule as exploitative.

Judith Brown emphasizes Gandhi’s role in transforming Congress from an elite political organization into a mass nationalist movement.

Sumit Sarkar stresses that Indian nationalism was not unified; it included moderates, radicals, peasants, workers, socialists, and religious groups with different goals.

Evaluation

Ideology was extremely important in India because it gave the independence movement a unifying language: swaraj, swadeshi, non-cooperation, and self-reliance. However, ideology alone did not win independence. It became effective because it was combined with mass mobilization, British weakness, and political pressure.

2. Use of Force

India’s independence movement is often associated with non-violence, but force was not completely absent.

Non-violent resistance

Gandhi’s method of satyagraha was based on peaceful civil disobedience.

Important examples:

Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920–1922
Indians boycotted British schools, courts, titles, and goods. Gandhi suspended the movement after the Chauri Chaura incident in 1922, when protesters killed policemen.

Salt March, March–April 1930
Gandhi marched about 240 miles to the sea to protest the British salt tax. This became one of the most powerful symbols of Indian resistance.

Quit India Movement, August 1942
Congress demanded that Britain leave India immediately. The British arrested Gandhi and Congress leaders, but the movement showed that British rule could not continue without massive repression.

Violent resistance

Although Gandhi dominated the movement, some Indian nationalists believed violence was necessary.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, HSRA
This revolutionary group supported armed resistance. Examples include:

• Kakori Train Robbery, 1925

• Central Legislative Assembly bombing, 1929

• Bhagat Singh’s execution, 1931

Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army
Bose rejected Gandhi’s non-violence and believed independence required armed struggle. During World War II, he worked with Axis powers and led the Indian National Army, which fought against the British in Southeast Asia.

British use of force

British repression often strengthened Indian nationalism.

Jallianwala Bagh / Amritsar Massacre, 13 April 1919
General Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd in Amritsar. Hundreds were killed. This event destroyed much Indian faith in British liberal rule.

Historiography

Judith Brown argues Gandhi’s non-violent strategy was powerful because it gave moral legitimacy to the Indian cause.

Bipan Chandra argues that British repression helped expose the true nature of colonial rule and increased nationalist unity.

Perry Anderson is more critical of Gandhi and Congress, arguing that Indian nationalism failed to fully overcome religious divisions.

Evaluation

Force was less central in India than in Algeria. Indian independence was not mainly achieved through military defeat of the British. However, British violence, especially in 1919 and 1942, undermined British legitimacy. Revolutionary violence and the INA also contributed pressure, but Gandhi’s mass non-violence remained the dominant method.

3. Political Factors

Politics was central to India’s independence because the movement developed through institutions, negotiations, and mass parties.

Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, began as a moderate organization seeking reform, representation, and dialogue with the British. Over time, it became the main vehicle for independence.

Early Congress was moderate, but after 1905 and especially after Gandhi’s rise, it became more radical and mass-based.

British reforms and failures

British reforms often raised expectations but failed to satisfy Indian nationalists.

Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
Expanded Indian representation but also introduced separate electorates for Muslims, increasing communal political divisions.

Montagu Declaration, 1917
Promised the “gradual development of self-governing institutions,” not full independence. This raised expectations but frustrated nationalists when reform was slow.

Government of India Act, 1919
Introduced limited self-government but kept real power with the British.

Government of India Act, 1935
Expanded provincial autonomy but still denied full independence.

Repressive politics

Rowlatt Acts, 1919
Extended wartime emergency powers into peacetime. Indians could be arrested without trial. This triggered widespread protest.

Internment of Annie Besant, 1917
Her arrest during the Home Rule agitation increased nationalist anger.

Evaluation

Political factors were crucial because they gave the nationalist movement organization and legitimacy. Congress created a national platform, while British political reforms repeatedly disappointed Indians and increased demands for full independence.

4. Economic Factors

Economic exploitation was a major cause of Indian nationalism.

British economic control

Many Indians believed British rule had impoverished India through taxation, land revenue demands, deindustrialization, and the export of Indian wealth.

Agrarian distress

Peasants suffered from high taxes, debt, and famine conditions. This helped Gandhi mobilize rural India.

Examples:

• Champaran Satyagraha, 1917 — Gandhi supported indigo farmers in Bihar.

• Kheda Satyagraha, 1918 — Protest against taxation during crop failure.

World War I and economic hardship

World War I caused inflation, shortages, and economic pressure. Indians had contributed soldiers and resources to the British war effort, but they did not receive meaningful self-rule afterward.

Historiography

Dadabhai Naoroji argued in his “Drain Theory” that Britain economically exploited India by taking Indian wealth to Britain.

R.C. Dutt also argued that British land revenue and economic policy damaged Indian agriculture.

Bipan Chandra connects economic exploitation to the rise of anti-colonial nationalism.

Evaluation

Economic factors created long-term resentment, especially among peasants and workers. However, economic hardship became politically powerful only when nationalist leaders connected it to the broader demand for independence.

5. Foreign and International Factors

Foreign factors helped accelerate Indian independence.

World War I

India contributed over one million soldiers to the British war effort. Many Indians expected political concessions afterward. Instead, Britain passed the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, causing resentment.

World War II

World War II was even more important. Britain used Indian resources and soldiers without fully consulting Indian leaders. The war weakened Britain economically and militarily.

Atlantic Charter, 1941

The Allied language of self-determination exposed the hypocrisy of Britain fighting for freedom while ruling India.

Japanese advance and INA

Japan’s advance into Southeast Asia and Bose’s Indian National Army showed that British imperial control was vulnerable.

Postwar British weakness

By 1945, Britain was financially exhausted. The Labour government under Clement Attlee was more willing to grant independence than Churchill had been.

Key date

• 15 August 1947 — India became independent.

Evaluation

Foreign factors were decisive in the final stage. Indian nationalism existed long before World War II, but British weakness after 1945 made independence unavoidable.

INDIA: Maintaining Independence

India faced major challenges after independence: Partition, communal violence, princely states, economic underdevelopment, caste inequality, and regional divisions.

1. Partition and Communal Violence

India gained independence on 15 August 1947, but independence came with Partition. Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947.

The Great Partition of 1947 caused one of the largest migrations in history. Millions of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs crossed borders, and communal violence killed hundreds of thousands.

Jinnah and the Two-Nation Theory

Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League argued that Muslims needed a separate state because Hindus and Muslims were distinct political communities.

Historiography

Ayesha Jalal argues that Jinnah may initially have used the demand for Pakistan as a bargaining strategy to secure Muslim political rights, but events pushed it toward full partition.

Stanley Wolpert emphasizes the speed and chaos of British withdrawal as a major cause of Partition violence.

Evaluation

Partition was the greatest immediate threat to India’s stability. The Indian state survived because it built strong institutions quickly and maintained central authority.

2. Constitution and Democracy

India maintained independence through constitutional government.

Key dates

• 26 November 1949 — Constitution adopted

• 26 January 1950 — Constitution came into effect; India became a republic

The constitution created:

• Parliamentary democracy

• Federalism

• Fundamental rights

• Secularism

• Universal adult suffrage

Evaluation

This was one of India’s biggest successes. Unlike many postcolonial states, India maintained regular elections and constitutional rule.

3. Integration of Princely States

At independence, India had to integrate over 560 princely states.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon played major roles in persuading rulers to join India.

Hyderabad

Hyderabad’s ruler resisted joining India. India launched Operation Polo in September 1948, using military force to integrate Hyderabad.

Kashmir

Kashmir became a major problem. The First Indo-Pakistani War, 1947–1949, began after tribal fighters from Pakistan entered Kashmir and the Maharaja acceded to India.

Evaluation

The integration of princely states was essential to maintaining Indian unity. India mostly used diplomacy, but it used force when necessary.

4. Regional and Linguistic Divisions

India had many linguistic and regional identities.

The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 reorganized Indian states mainly along linguistic lines.

Evaluation

This helped reduce separatist pressure by giving linguistic groups political recognition within the Indian Union.

5. Economic Development

India inherited poverty, food shortages, and low industrial development.

Planning Commission, 1950

India created the Planning Commission to guide economic development.

Five-Year Plans

The First Five-Year Plan began in 1951 and focused on agriculture, irrigation, and food production.

The Second Five-Year Plan, beginning in 1956, emphasized heavy industry.

Import Substitution Industrialization

India tried to reduce dependence on foreign goods by developing domestic industries.

Evaluation

Economic planning helped India maintain independence by reducing foreign dependence, but growth was slow, and poverty remained a major problem.

6. Social Reform

India also tried to maintain unity through social reform.

Article 17

Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolished untouchability, though caste discrimination continued in practice.

Hindu Code Bills, 1955–1956

These laws expanded women’s rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption among Hindus.

Evaluation

Social reforms strengthened the idea of a modern secular democracy, but caste and gender inequality remained serious problems.

ALGERIA: Rise to Independence

1. Ideology and Nationalism

Algerian nationalism grew in response to French colonial rule, land loss, legal inequality, and cultural assimilation.

France had conquered Algeria beginning in 1830 and treated it not simply as a colony but as part of France. However, Muslim Algerians were denied equal political and legal rights.

French assimilation

France promoted assimilation, meaning Algerians could theoretically become French citizens if they accepted French culture and law. In reality, very few Muslims gained equal citizenship.

One major issue was that many Muslims would have had to give up aspects of Islamic personal law to gain full French citizenship. This made assimilation seem like an attack on Islamic identity.

Islam and nationalism

Islam became an important marker of Algerian identity. As French colonial rule threatened Islamic law, culture, and education, religion helped unify resistance.

Messali Hadj

Messali Hadj was one of the earliest major Algerian nationalist leaders.

Important organizations linked to him:

• Étoile Nord-Africaine, founded in 1926

• Parti du Peuple Algérien, PPA, founded in 1937

• Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties, MTLD, founded in 1946

Messali Hadj represented a more radical nationalist demand for independence.

Ferhat Abbas

Ferhat Abbas initially supported reform within the French framework. He did not begin as a full separatist. However, French refusal to grant meaningful equality pushed him toward independence.

Blum-Viollette Proposal, 1936

This proposal would have granted French citizenship to a small number of educated Muslim Algerians without requiring them to abandon Islamic personal status. French settlers opposed it, and it failed.

Evaluation

Ideology was crucial in Algeria, but it was more revolutionary and anti-settler than India’s nationalism. Algerian nationalism was shaped by the fact that Algeria had a large European settler population, the pieds-noirs, who strongly resisted reform.

2. Use of Force

Force was the central factor in Algeria’s independence movement.

Unlike India, Algeria achieved independence through a brutal war of liberation.

Sétif and Guelma Massacres, May 1945

On 8 May 1945, Algerians demonstrated during celebrations of victory in Europe. Some protests became violent, and French retaliation was massive. Thousands of Algerians were killed.

This event convinced many Algerian nationalists that peaceful reform would not work.

FLN and armed struggle

The Front de Libération Nationale, FLN, was founded in 1954.

On 1 November 1954, the FLN launched attacks across Algeria in what became known as Toussaint Rouge, or Red All Saints’ Day. This marked the beginning of the Algerian War of Independence.

ALN and guerrilla warfare

The FLN’s military wing, the Armée de Libération Nationale, ALN, used guerrilla tactics, especially in rural areas and mountainous regions.

Battle of Algiers, 1956–1957

The FLN carried out bombings and urban guerrilla warfare in Algiers. The French army responded with torture, mass arrests, and repression.

France won the Battle of Algiers militarily, but the use of torture damaged France’s moral legitimacy internationally.

OAS

The Organisation de l’Armée Secrète, OAS, was a French settler and far-right paramilitary group formed in 1961. It used terrorism to try to prevent Algerian independence.

Historiography

Alistair Horne, in A Savage War of Peace, argues that the Algerian War was one of the most brutal wars of decolonization and that French repression ultimately undermined France’s position.

Frantz Fanon argued that violence was psychologically and politically necessary for colonized people to overthrow colonial domination.

Benjamin Stora emphasizes the lasting trauma of the Algerian War for both Algeria and France.

Evaluation

Force was far more important in Algeria than in India. The FLN made Algeria impossible to govern peacefully, while French torture and repression destroyed France’s legitimacy.

3. Political Factors

Political failures helped radicalize Algerian nationalism.

Failure of reform

French reforms repeatedly failed because pieds-noirs opposed Muslim political equality.

The failure of the Blum-Viollette Proposal in 1936 showed that even moderate reform was blocked.

FLN political organization

The FLN did not only fight militarily. It also tried to present itself as the legitimate voice of the Algerian people.

GPRA

The Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, GPRA, was created in 1958. It helped the FLN gain international recognition and diplomatic legitimacy.

Charles de Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle returned to power in 1958 during the crisis of the French Fourth Republic. At first, many settlers believed he would keep Algeria French. However, he eventually accepted that Algeria could not remain under French control.

Important dates:

• 1958 — De Gaulle returned to power

• 1959 — De Gaulle recognized Algerian self-determination

• 18 March 1962 — Évian Accords signed

• 5 July 1962 — Algeria became independent

Evaluation

Political failure was vital. If France had allowed meaningful reform earlier, the FLN may not have gained such support. But settler resistance and French repression made compromise nearly impossible.

4. Economic Factors

Economic inequality was a major cause of Algerian nationalism.

Land expropriation

French settlers controlled much of the best agricultural land. Muslim Algerians were often pushed onto poorer land.

Pieds-noirs privilege

The European settler population had better access to land, jobs, education, and political rights.

Poverty and unemployment

Many Muslim Algerians faced rural poverty, unemployment, and urban overcrowding.

Illiteracy

A large portion of the Muslim population remained illiterate under French rule. This showed the failure of France’s so-called civilizing mission.

Great Depression

The Great Depression damaged exports and increased economic hardship, which intensified resentment toward colonial rule.

Evaluation

Economic inequality created the conditions for rebellion. However, economic hardship alone did not cause independence. It became revolutionary when connected to nationalist ideology and FLN organization.

5. Foreign and International Factors

Foreign factors played a major role in Algeria.

World War II

World War II weakened French prestige. France had been defeated by Germany in 1940, making claims of French superiority less convincing.

Dien Bien Phu, 1954

France’s defeat by Vietnamese forces at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954 showed that French imperialism could be defeated by anti-colonial movements. This encouraged Algerian nationalists.

Egypt and Nasser

Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser supported Arab nationalism and anti-colonial movements. Cairo became a propaganda and diplomatic hub for the FLN.

United Nations

The FLN used international forums to gain support and portray France as a colonial oppressor.

Cold War context

The FLN benefited from the global trend of decolonization after 1945. France found it harder to defend colonial rule in an era when self-determination had become an important international principle.

Historiography

Matthew Connelly argues that the FLN won partly by internationalizing the conflict and making Algeria a global diplomatic issue.

Evaluation

Foreign factors were especially important in Algeria because international pressure weakened France diplomatically. However, international support mattered because the FLN had already made Algeria ungovernable through armed struggle.

6. Leaders

Leaders were important, but the Algerian movement was more collective than Gandhi’s India.

Key leaders

Ahmed Ben Bella
One of the FLN’s early leaders. Later became Algeria’s first president after independence.

Larbi Ben M’Hidi
Important FLN leader during the Battle of Algiers. He was captured and killed by French forces in 1957, becoming a martyr.

Krim Belkacem
Key FLN military and political figure. He played a major role in the Évian negotiations.

Ferhat Abbas
Moved from reformism to nationalism and became associated with the GPRA.

Charles de Gaulle
Not an Algerian nationalist, but crucial because his decision to accept self-determination made independence possible.

Evaluation

Leadership mattered, but Algeria’s independence was not centered around one single figure like Gandhi. The FLN’s collective organization, armed struggle, and international diplomacy were more important.

ALGERIA: Maintaining Independence

Algeria faced major problems after independence: political division, economic dependence, settler departure, military influence, and border conflict.

1. Political Consolidation

After independence in 1962, Algeria experienced internal power struggles.

The FLN became the dominant political force, and Algeria developed into a one-party state.

Ben Bella

Ahmed Ben Bella became prime minister in 1962 and president in 1963. He promoted socialism, Arab nationalism, and one-party rule.

1963 Constitution

The 1963 Constitution established Algeria as a republic but confirmed FLN political dominance.

Boumediene coup

On 19 June 1965, Houari Boumediene overthrew Ben Bella in a coup. This showed the importance of the military in post-independence Algeria.

Evaluation

Algeria maintained independence through strong centralized rule, but this came at the cost of political pluralism.

2. Economic Independence

Algeria inherited an economy shaped by French colonialism.

Many European settlers left after independence, causing a shortage of skilled workers, managers, and professionals.

State socialism

The Algerian government used socialist planning and state ownership to control the economy.

Nationalization

Algeria nationalized major resources, especially oil and gas. A major turning point was the nationalization of hydrocarbons in 1971 under Boumediene.

Evaluation

Economic nationalism helped Algeria reduce dependence on France. However, Algeria remained heavily dependent on oil and gas exports.

3. Social and Cultural Independence

Algeria tried to reverse French cultural influence.

Arabization

The government promoted Arabic language and Islamic identity to replace French cultural dominance.

Education

The state expanded education to reduce illiteracy and build national identity.

Problem

Arabization sometimes marginalized Berber identity, especially among Kabyle communities.

Evaluation

Cultural policies helped build a postcolonial national identity, but they also created new internal tensions.

4. Foreign Policy

Algeria maintained independence by pursuing a strongly anti-imperialist and non-aligned foreign policy.

Non-Aligned Movement

Algeria became an important voice in the postcolonial world and supported anti-colonial movements in Africa and beyond.

Relations with France

Algeria remained economically connected to France but tried to assert political independence.

Sand War, 1963

Algeria fought a border conflict with Morocco in 1963, known as the Sand War. This tested the new state’s ability to defend its territory.

Evaluation

Foreign policy was important because Algeria presented itself as a revolutionary anti-colonial state. This strengthened its legitimacy at home and abroad.

Direct Comparison: India vs Algeria

Similarities

Both independence movements were caused by:

• Nationalism

• Colonial repression

• Economic exploitation

• Disappointment with reform

• World War II weakening European empires

• Strong leaders and organized movements

Both states also faced major post-independence challenges:

• Violence and instability

• Territorial disputes

• Economic weakness

• Social divisions

• Need to build national identity

Differences

Best Historiography to Memorize

India

Dadabhai Naoroji
Argued that Britain drained India’s wealth through economic exploitation.

Bipan Chandra
Emphasizes the growth of anti-colonial nationalism and economic critique.

Judith Brown
Highlights Gandhi’s role in turning Congress into a mass movement.

Sumit Sarkar
Argues Indian nationalism was diverse and internally divided.

Ayesha Jalal
Important for Partition; argues Jinnah’s Pakistan demand was partly a bargaining strategy before becoming reality.

Algeria

Alistair Horne
Emphasizes the brutality of the Algerian War and the way French repression undermined France.

Frantz Fanon
Argues violence was central to decolonization and psychologically liberating for colonized peoples.

Benjamin Stora
Focuses on memory, trauma, and the long-term effects of the Algerian War.

Matthew Connelly
Argues the FLN succeeded partly by internationalizing the conflict and using global diplomacy.

Martin Evans
Emphasizes the complexity of Algerian nationalism and the importance of both internal resistance and international context.

Argument-Ready Essay Plans

Essay Question 1

Evaluate the importance of ideology in the rise to independence of two states.

Thesis

Ideology was important in both India and Algeria because it gave anti-colonial movements unity and purpose. However, ideology functioned differently in each case. In India, nationalism was shaped by swaraj, swadeshi, and Gandhian non-violence, while in Algeria nationalism became more revolutionary, Islamic, and militarized due to settler colonialism and French repression.

Paragraph 1: India ideology

Use:

• Swaraj

• Swadeshi

• Gandhi’s satyagraha

• Home Rule Leagues, 1916

• Quit India, 1942

• Judith Brown

Paragraph 2: Algeria ideology

Use:

• Messali Hadj

• Islam and anti-assimilation

• Ferhat Abbas moving from reformism to nationalism

• FLN, 1954

• Fanon

Paragraph 3: Evaluation

Ideology mattered more when paired with action. India used ideology to mobilize masses. Algeria used ideology to justify armed revolution. Therefore, ideology was necessary but not sufficient.

Essay Question 2

Compare and contrast the role of force in two independence movements.

Thesis

Force played a role in both India and Algeria, but it was far more central in Algeria. India’s movement was dominated by Gandhi’s non-violent civil disobedience, although revolutionary violence and British repression mattered. Algeria, by contrast, gained independence through sustained armed struggle by the FLN and the military failure of French colonial rule.

India evidence

• Amritsar Massacre, 1919

• Non-Cooperation, 1920–1922

• Salt March, 1930

• Quit India, 1942

• HSRA and Bhagat Singh

• INA and Bose

Algeria evidence

• Sétif Massacre, 1945

• FLN founded, 1954

• Toussaint Rouge, 1 November 1954

• Battle of Algiers, 1956–1957

• OAS, 1961

• Évian Accords, 1962

Evaluation

India shows that non-violent pressure can delegitimize empire, especially when the colonial power is weakened. Algeria shows that in settler colonies where reform is blocked, armed struggle may become more central.

Essay Question 3

Evaluate the challenges faced by two newly independent states in maintaining independence.

Thesis

India and Algeria both faced severe post-independence challenges, but their responses differed. India maintained independence through constitutional democracy, federal integration, and economic planning, while Algeria maintained independence through one-party rule, military authority, socialism, and anti-imperialist foreign policy.

India evidence

• Partition, 1947

• Constitution, 1950

• Hyderabad, 1948

• First Indo-Pakistani War, 1947–1949

• States Reorganisation Act, 1956

• Planning Commission, 1950

• Article 17

• Hindu Code Acts, 1955–1956

Algeria evidence

• Independence, 5 July 1962

• Ben Bella presidency, 1963

• One-party FLN state

• Boumediene coup, 1965

• Sand War, 1963

• Hydrocarbon nationalization, 1971

• Arabization

Evaluation

India was more successful in building democratic legitimacy, while Algeria was more successful in asserting revolutionary and economic independence but became politically authoritarian.

Key Dates to Memorize

India

Algeria

Strong Final Judgement

India and Algeria show two different paths to independence. India’s movement was broader, more constitutional, and more associated with non-violent mass mobilization, while Algeria’s was more violent, revolutionary, and shaped by settler colonialism. In both cases, nationalism was essential, but nationalism succeeded only when combined with colonial weakness, international pressure, and effective organization. After independence, India maintained sovereignty through democratic institutions and federal compromise, while Algeria maintained sovereignty through centralized FLN rule, military power, and economic nationalism.