AP World unit 2
AP Historical Thinking Skills
1: Developments and Processes
2: Claims and Evidence in Sources
3: Contextualization
4: Making Connections
5: Argumentation
6: Sourcing and Situation
Key Concepts - Unit 2: Networks of Exchange
2.1: The Silk Roads
2.2: The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World
2.3: Exchange in the Indian Ocean
2.4: Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
2.5: Cultural Consequences of Connectivity
2.6: Environmental Consequences of Connectivity
2.7: Comparison of Economic Exchange
Themes
Cultural Developments and Interactions (CDI)
Governance (GOV)
Environment (ENV)
Technology and Innovation (TEC)
Economic Systems (ECN)
Social Interactions and Organizations (SIO)
Unit 2: Key Concepts
Human interaction networks expanded, influencing cultural, technological, and biological diffusion.
Improved commercial practices boosted trade volume and routes (e.g., Silk Roads), creating powerful trading cities.
Transport and commercial tech innovations stimulated luxury goods trade, involving caravanserai, credit systems, and monetary economies.
Increased demand for luxury goods in Afro-Eurasia led to production growth by artisans/merchants (e.g., textiles, porcelain).
Key Terms and People
Caravanserai: Roadside inns (~100 miles apart) for resting travelers; logistical support points.
Flying Cash/Money: Early Chinese paper currency; facilitated trade with multi-location deposits/withdrawals.
Banking Houses: European institutions (1300s) for financial transactions, credit, deposits.
Bill of Exchange: Document promising legal payment of a set amount on a set date.
Silk Roads: Vast trade network (East-West); exchanged goods, culture, technology.
Samarkand: Key Silk Road stop (Uzbekistan); cultural melting pot for goods and ideas.
Kashgar: Vital Silk Road trade hub (western China); water/food stop at route crossing.
Mongols and their impact: Empire expanded trade, fostering Eurasian interconnectivity via Silk Road support.
Malacca (Melaka): Indian Ocean trading port (1400-1511); grew wealthy from strait fees; Islamic learning center.
Gujarat: Western Indian Rajput kingdom; East-West trade intermediary; raised revenue from customs/seaport fees.
Swahili City-States: East African coastal cities; prospered from trade; most merchants converted to Islam (13th c.).
Emergence of Swahili language (Bantu+Arabic) and urban trading ports.
Zheng He: Chinese mariner (Ming Dynasty); led naval expeditions (1405-1433).
Aimed to enhance China's prestige/influence through a tribute system.
Mali: West African empire; controlled Trans-Saharan trade routes (gold, ivory, salt).
Facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade (Sundiata, Mansa Musa).
Sundiata: Mali Empire founder; increased wealth via taxes on trade; used Islam to unite people.
Mansa Musa: Mali leader; used Islam to unite people; Hajj (1324) showcased Mali's wealth, brought scholars to Timbuktu.
Ibn Battuta (1304-1353): Moroccan Muslim scholar/traveler; documented local traditions across Afro-Eurasia.
Marco Polo (1254-1324): Venetian merchant/traveler; 'Il Milione' introduced Europeans to Central Asia/China (Kublai Khan).
Stimulated European interest in East Asian trade.
Margery Kempe (c.1373-c.1440): English Chr istian mystic; wrote first English autobiography (travels/pilgrimages).
Champa Rice: Fast-ripening, drought-resistant rice (from India); increased food production, population, industrial output in China.
Yam System: Mongol relay stations/messengers for rapid empire communication.
Dhows: Traditional Indian Ocean sailing vessels with lateen sails.
Junks: Huge Chinese cargo ships; advanced design; common in Indian Ocean trade.
Lateen Sails: Triangular sails allowing ships to sail against wind; aided maritime exploration.
Stern Rudder: Chinese maritime innovation; improved ship steering/control.
Astrolabe: Ancient instrument (refined by Arabs); determined latitude for navigation.
Magnetic Compass: Chinese invention; indicated direction, vastly improved sea navigation.
2.1: The Silk Roads
Causes and Effects of Silk Roads Growth Post-1200
Tang and Song Commercial Expansion
Commercial expansion boomed (canal systems, Silk Roads).
Banks, credit, 'flying money' (paper money) revolutionized trade.
Urban Growth and Sophistication
Major cities flourished as urban centers.
Changan (Tang): 2M people, world's largest.
Hangzhou (Song): Known for culture, entertainment.
Popular Export Items: Textiles (silk), porcelain.
Silk Production
China held silk monopoly for millennia, lost it ~500 CE.
Women controlled production, primarily rural labor.
Tang Dynasty: women contributed significantly to household/state economy.
The Role of Silk
Desired luxurious fabric for elites.
Used to bribe 'barbarian' invaders.
Romans demanded silk, cotton.
Served as currency and wealth.
Laws restricted wear to elites (status symbol).
Gifts for Buddhist monasteries, Christian vestments.
West African kings wore silk by 12th century.
Cultural Spread: Spreading Culture on the Silk Roads
Silk Roads were key for cultural conduit.
Buddhism (India) spread widely in Central/East Asia via merchants.
Appealed to merchants due to universal message.
Persian Zoroastrianism blocked spread to the west.
Buddhism evolved: wealthy merchants shifted priorities.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished: emphasized compassion, Bodhisattvas, Buddha as divine.
Economic Dynamics - Barter vs. Money Economies
Barter Economies: Direct exchange without money; required 'double coincidence of wants,' inefficient.
Transition to Money Economies
Money eliminated barter inefficiencies.
Paper money ('flying cash') facilitated long-distance trade.
Banking houses (Europe, 1300s) managed finance.
Bills of exchange promised future payments.
Rise of money economies contributed to feudalism's end in Europe.
Land ceased being sole wealth determinant; demand for currency upset peasants.
Black Death also ended feudalism: high labor demand gave peasants bargaining rights.
The Spread of the Black Death
Bubonic Plague (Black Death) traveled Silk Roads, reducing Europe's population by approx. (1347-1351).
Mongol interconnectivity contributed to rapid plague spread.
Cities and Oases as Trade Nodes in Network
Sites developed: Kashgar, Samarkand, Caravanserai.
Kashgar: Western China, route crossing, vital for water/food.
Samarkand: Uzbekistan, crucial stopping point, cultural melting pot.
Caravanserai: Roadside inns (~100 miles apart) for safe rest.
Camels, with specialized saddles, enabled caravans through harsh terrain.
2.2: The Mongol Empire and the Making of the Modern World
Pre-Mongol Eurasia (c. 1200)
Diverse ethnic/political groups.
Nomadic groups vital for trade, connecting empires.
Trade across disparate groups was difficult.
Mongol Society
Nomadic Lifestyle: Lived in yurts, migrated for grazing in steppes.
Social Structure: Divided into tribes; women had active roles.
Military Aptitude
Accomplished horsemen, excellent with short bows.
Acquired Chinese military innovations (cannons, gunpowder).
Covered large distances quickly.
Used Yam System: rapid communication relay.
Warrior code focused on bravery; used spies for maps.
Genghis Khan's Legacy
Temujin became Genghis Khan
Elected Genghis Khan (1206) after uniting Mongol tribes.
Recognized merit over status.
Established capital at Karakorum.
Early Campaigns: Defeated Xi Xia (1207), attacked Jin, conquered Kara Khitai and Khwarazm Empires (1219).
Conquest Strategies: Captured artisans/scholars; devastated conquered towns.
The Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan
Karakorum attracted scholars.
Open to new ideas (Greco-Islamic medicine/math/philosophy).
Helped preserve Greco-Roman knowledge; tolerated religions/cultures.
Devised Uyghur script.
Created Pax Mongolica: peace/stability for easy Eurasian communication/commerce.
Secured/monitored trade routes, taxed traders.
Focused on tribute, not direct administration.
Succession and Expansion
Death of Genghis Khan: Died in battle (1227); body secretly buried.
Division of the Empire: Divided into four parts among sons/grandson.
Ogedei became Great Khan, directed conquests.
Four Khanates: Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Yuan Dynasty.
Weakened by 1294, mostly dissolved by late 14th century.
Chagatai Khanate - Central Asia (1225-1687)
Greatest extent ~1300.
Weakened by Tamerlane (1360s); decentralized into sub-khanates.
Ilkhan Khanate - Middle East
Hulegu captured Baghdad (1258).
Mamluks of Egypt defeated Mongols (1260), halting expansion.
Mongols converted to Islam; adapted legal code.
Used local lords for taxes/census.
Tolerant of scholars/artisans; fostered 'Golden Age of Islam'.
Reinvigorated Eurasian trade, especially Silk Roads.
The Golden Horde - Russia (1237-1380)
Batu led invasion, established Golden Horde.
Russia fragmented, unable to defend; Kiev taken (1240).
Practiced religious toleration for Orthodox Church; increased trade.
Conquest of Europe halted by Khagan Ogedei's death.
Russia isolated from Western Europe (Renaissance).
Tribute Empire: Moscow collected tribute, grew stronger.
Declined as Moscow strengthened; defeated by Russians (1380).
Yuan Dynasty - China (1279-1398)
Kublai Khan conquered Song (1279), established Yuan, capital at Khanbalik (Beijing).
Laws distinguished Mongols from Chinese (e.g., writing, marriage).
Hierarchical social standing: Mongols top, then Muslims/others, then Chinese.
Kublai Khan fascinated by Chinese culture; welcomed foreigners (Marco Polo).
Practiced religious tolerance.
Developed a navy; increased Eurasian trade (Silk Roads).
Medical/scientific knowledge improved.
Song loyalists revolted (White Lotus Society).
Overthrown by Zhu Yuanzhang (1398); Mongols retreated to Central Asia.
Significance of Mongols
Established largest land empire.
Created Pax Mongolica (13th–14th c.): peace/stability for Eurasian communication/commerce.
Secured Silk Road trade; developed cities/Caravanserai.
Facilitated art, language, religion (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Greco-Roman knowledge), and crop exchange.
New credit/money (paper money from China) emerged.
Responsible for Bubonic Plague (Black Death) spread along Silk Roads.
Marco Polo
Venetian merchant/traveler; present in Kublai Khan's court.
'Il Milione' detailed travels to Yuan Dynasty; informed Europeans on Central Asia/China.
Stimulated European interest in East Asian trade.
2.3: Exchange in the Indian Ocean
Growth of Exchange Networks Post-1200
Indian Ocean Trade Routes
Sea-based equivalent of Silk Roads; largest until New World discovery.
Southern China to East Africa.
Cheaper transport; large cargo capacity (junks).
Emphasized bulk goods (raw materials) for mass market (vs. Silk Roads' luxury).
Chinese junks, Arab dhows common.
Extensive market networks along coasts; Arab/Chinese power rivaled.
Navigation aids: compasses (China), astrolabes (Islamic world).
Led to significant religious/technological exchanges.
Environmental Knowledge: Critical for trade.
Monsoons created alternating wind currents, impacting travel.
Trade mainly between individual merchant towns; not empire-controlled (unlike Silk Roads).
Indian Ocean Trade and Diasporas
Traders often settled permanently due to time-consuming sea trade.
Diasporic Communities emerged:
Arabs/Persians in East Africa (Swahili coast).
Chinese merchants in Southeast Asia.
Malay communities throughout Indian Ocean.
Facilitated rich exchange of religions, languages, knowledge (cultural syncretism).
The Legacy of Zheng He
Sea Trade in China
Ming Empire (1368-1644) commissioned enormous fleet (1405) by Emperor Yongle.
Admiral Zheng He led expeditions (1405-1433) using large Chinese junks.
Sailed China to Middle East and East Africa.
Goal: enroll distant states in Chinese tribute system, enhance prestige.
Rulers accompanied fleets back to China for tribute/rituals/gifts.
Cancellation of Expeditions (1433)
China abruptly canceled due to internal political shifts (xenophobia, focus on internal affairs).
China lost chance to be dominant trading partner, opening door for Western powers.
Gujarat
Western Indian Rajput kingdom; crucial East-West trade intermediary.
Raised significant revenue via customs/seaport fees.
The Sultanate of Malacca (1400-1511)
Descendant of Srivijaya Empire; bustling trade ports.
Critical trading empire in Indian Ocean.
Adoption of Islam connected it to Dar al-Islam; became Islamic learning center.
Fell to Portuguese Empire (1511).
Swahili Coast of East Africa
Islamized trading ports emerged by 13th c.; merchants converted for financial motives.
Ibn Battuta visited, called them Muslim cities.
Swahili language (Bantu+Arabic) emerged (syncretism).
Swahili civilization: commercial city-states (Kilwa, Mogadishu, Mombasa).
Politically independent, class distinctions.
Direct result of diasporic Muslim communities from Indian Ocean trade.
2.4: Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
Causes and Effects of the Growth of Trans-Saharan Trade
Improvements in Trans-Saharan Trade
Camel saddle innovations (e.g., Somalis: lbs capacity).
Caravans increased trade volume and trader safety.
Expansion of African Empires: Controlled trade points, regulated trade, increased wealth/power.
Oases: Allowed cities to grow as essential caravan stopping points.
Sahel Grasslands
Transition zone between Sahara and savannas.
Crucial exchange point between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.
Important for trade after gold discovery.
Historical Developments
Improved transport (camel saddle) and commercial practices increased trade volume and routes.
Expansion of Mali Empire facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade.
Sundiata: Mali founder; increased wealth via trade taxes, used Islam to unite.
Mansa Musa: Mali leader; used Islam to unite, brought empire to height.
Hajj (1324) showcased Mali's immense wealth, brought scholars to Timbuktu.
Islam spread to West Africa/Southeast Asia via Muslim merchants/Sufi missionaries (vs. conquest elsewhere).
2.5: Cultural Consequences of Connectivity
Impact on Culture and Knowledge
Networks facilitated widespread movement of religions, knowledge, cultural practices across Afro-Eurasia (c. 1200-1450).
Religion
Buddhism spread via Silk Roads (Central/East Asia), appealed to merchants.
Islam spread rapidly by conquest (Spain, Persia, North Africa) and trade (West Africa, Southeast Asia).
Islamic Golden Age: Advancements in medicine, math, astronomy; preserved Greco-Roman philosophy.
Travel and Documentation
Ibn Battuta (1304-1353): Moroccan Muslim scholar/traveler; documented local traditions across Afro-Eurasia.
Marco Polo (1254-1324): Venetian merchant/traveler; 'Il Milione' informed Europeans on Central Asia/China.
Margery Kempe (c.1373-c.1440): English Christian mystic; wrote first English autobiography (travels/pilgrimages).
Islamic Networks and Influences
Muslim merchants prominent in all major Afro-Eurasian trade routes.
Islamic colony in Canton (Guangzhou) by 8th c. CE, linking Islam with Asia.
'Islamic Green Revolution' (new crops): increased food production, population, urbanization, industrial development.
Cultural influences in Afro-Eurasia:
Africa: Swahili language (Bantu+Arabic) emerged; Timbuktu became Islamic learning center; leaders (Mansa Musa) deepened Islamic ties.
South Asia: Islam attracted lower-caste Hindus; architecture blended Hindu/Islamic; Urdu language (Sanskrit-Hindi, Arabic, Persian); Bhakti poets sought links.
Southeast Asia: Muslim rulers combined Mughal, local, Chinese traits; traditional arts absorbed Muslim elements.
Scientific and Technological Innovations
Pax Mongolica facilitated technological transfers across Eurasia.
Champa rice (India): increased food, industrial production in China (porcelain, silk, steel).
Paper (China) facilitated printing press.
Maritime innovations: lateen sails, stern rudder (China), astrolabe (Arabs), magnetic compass (China).
Aided exploration, contributed to 'discovery of New World'.
Gunpowder (China) led to guns.
Preservation of Greco-Roman knowledge (Dar al-Islam), Chinese advancements (moveable type, paper) laid foundations for European Renaissance, Enlightenment, Scientific Revolution.
2.6: Environmental Consequences of Connectivity
Diffusion of Crops and Environmental Impacts
Diffusion of crops and pathogens along trade routes.
Diffusion of Crops
Bananas: Indonesian sailors to Sub-Saharan Africa; allowed Bantu migration; changed Madagascar's demography.
Champa Rice: Increased cultivation, population growth in East Asia.
Citrus: Spread throughout Mediterranean.
Cotton: Spread along various routes.
Environmental Degradation: Due to overuse of resources.
Overgrazing: Led to soil erosion.
Deforestation: Caused soil erosion, forced migration.
The Little Ice Age (c.1300-c.1800) affected agriculture, contributed to societal challenges.
Spread of Disease
Trade routes acted as pathogen conduits, leading to rapid disease diffusion.
Exposure to unfamiliar diseases caused devastation (e.g., Smallpox/Measles in Roman/Han Empires).
Disease spread sometimes increased appeal of religions (Christianity, Buddhism) offering solace.
Bubonic Plague (Black Death): Spread along Silk Roads (1347-1351); reduced Europe's population by approx. .
Effects of the Plague
Declined urbanization and trade.
Contributed to Mongol Empire's demise.
Labor Shortages
Higher wages, better working conditions for workers.
More opportunities for women.
Peasant revolts undermined serfdom, feudal system.
Contributed to feudalism collapse, paved way for absolute monarchs (1450-1750).
May have fostered interest in technological innovation (Industrial Revolution).
Disrupted Mongol land routes, incentivized Europeans to seek new maritime routes to East (e.g., spice trade), becoming 'new Mongols' in Indian Ocean (1450-1750).
2.7: Comparison of Economic Exchange
Similarities Among Networks of Exchange (c. 1200 to c. 1450)
Origins: Trade routes controlled/protected (e.g., Pax Mongolica).
Technological upgrades made trade profitable/efficient.
Purpose: Exchange goods/services; enrich cultures.
Effects
Trading Cities: Major hubs emerged (Samarkand, Malacca, Timbuktu).
Centralization: Growth of powerful cities required central planning (navies).
Standardized currency streamlined transactions.
Differences Among Networks of Exchange
Goods Traded, Transportation, and Religions
Silk Roads: Goods (silk, spices, porcelain, horses, textiles). Transport (horses, camels, caravanserai). Religions (Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism, Islam).
Indian Ocean: Goods (gold, ivory, textiles, peppers, citrus). Transport (dhows, junks, stern rudder, lateen sails, astrolabe, compass). Religions (Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Christianity).
Trans-Saharan: Goods (horses, books, salt, gold, ivory, enslaved people). Transport (camel caravans, new camel saddles). Religions (Islam).
Currency: Diverse forms (silk, tin ingots, cowrie shells).
Social Implications of Networks of Exchange (c. 1200 to c. 1450)
Proto-industrialization; shift to maritime trade.
Labor:
Increased demand for products led to increased labor demand.
Slave trade prominent (Indian Ocean, Trans-Saharan).
Large-scale projects required extensive labor.
Social and Gender Structures:
Mongol women: more freedom (refused burka, footbinding).
European women: farmers, artisans, guilds.
Southeast Asian women: key roles in marketplaces.
Environmental Processes:
Population decline from Bubonic Plague (~ Europe).
Educational centers grew (e.g., Canton, Timbuktu).
Political instability, agricultural demands strained environment.
Soil erosion from deforestation/overgrazing forced migrations.
Conclusions
Networks profoundly impacted global history, shaping economic relationships