Lab Practical

WORM

Anterior (head): more pointed, located closer to clitellum

Posterior (tail): farther from clitellum

Ventral side (flatter, lighter in color)

Dorsal side (rounded, darker)

You will have ventral side facing up

1. Crop

How to locate: located before the harder/muscular gizzard, thin storage sac

Function: storage chamber for food and soil

2. Gizzard

How to locate: right behind thin walled crop, firm/muscular/pearly white, oval shaped

Function: digests food, breaks it down, specifically grinds soil particles

3. Intestine

How to locate: long straight tube, gizzard to anus, on dorsal side of worm

Function: digestion with chemicals (enzymes), nutrients from food get absorbed into blood

4. Clitellum

How to locate: on skin, white and bulgy section

Function: secretes mucus and forms a cocoon around the fertilized eggs, helps reproduction

5. Setae

How to locate: hairlike structures on ventral side

Function: aids in movement, grappling hooks to burrow in soil

6. Metanephridia

How to locate: toward posterior end, in pairs (2), small white curved tubes

Function: collects urine and wastes and water and solutes in anterior segment

• Similar to kidneys in vertebrate animals

7. Seminal vesicles

How to locate: smaller cream colored sacs, in the anterior region

Function: sperm produced

8. Hearts

How to locate: would have to remove organs covering esophagus (connected to crop)

Hearts = five dark, muscular loops wrapped around esophagus

Function: pumps oxygenated blood to different parts of the body, like tissues and organs

Considerations:

• Worms have countershading (camouflage): darker on upper surface (dorsal) and light colored on its underside (ventral)

• Dorsal longitudinal vessel

• Ventral nerve cord

• Closed circulatory system

• Individual worm has both male and female reproductive organs

• Breathe through diffusion: oxygen enters through skin into bloodstream, thus must stay moist to keep breathing / not dry out

• Invertebrate: no backbone

• Annelid family (leeches, worms)

GRASSHOPPER

1. Hindwings

How to locate: larger and transparent

Function: powered flight/glides

2. Forewings

How to locate: narrow wings at front

Function: natural protection for hindwings

3. Tympanic membrane

How to locate: under hindwing between thorax and abdomen

Function: vibrates in response to sound waves(hear mating calls and detect predators)

4. Jumping legs

How to locate: last pair of legs that are significantly larger than the rest

Function: energy is stored to allow quick and high jump

5. Antennae

How to locate: front of grasshopper’s head; jointed structures

Function: detect smell, sense surroundings in dark, perceive changes in air humidity, wind velocity and vibrations

6. Crop

How to locate: between esophagus and stomach; looks swollen with thin membrane-looking

Function: store food to ingest vegetation and soften before it gets chemically digested

7. Gastric caecum

How to locate: finger-like around the digestive tract(ahead of malpighian tubules)

Function: secretes digestive enzymes to break down carbohydrates and absorb nutrients

8. stomach/intestine

How to locate: after gizzard

Function: site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption

9. Compound eyes/simple eyes

How to locate: c; prominent bulbous on upper side of head s; bead-like and translucent

Function: c; ommatidia helps detect movement, measure distance and recognize patterns s; light intensity detection

10. Spiracles

How to locate: on upper side of abdomen after jumping legs; oval shaped pores

Function: intake of O2 and release of CO2; can also close up to prevent water loss

11. Mapighian tubules

How to locate: thread-like organs after the stomach/intestines

Function: extract nitrogenous waste from blood → uric acid(excrete waste w/ minimal water loss)

12. Body regions

How to locate: head/thorax/abdomen (in order) 

Function: head; sensing thorax; locomotion abdomen; digestion and reproduction

13. Ovary 

How to locate: large mass right after cutting grasshopper

Function: egg production occurs

14. Gonads

How to locate: male; tightly coiled and brown female; yellow and tubular egg sac

Function: male; produce sperm female; produce egg

15. Gizzard

How to locate: placed after crop, pear shaped bulb

Function: grinds up food and filtering food particles

16. Ovipositor

How to locate: two pointy shovels at the end of abdomen

Function: digs into soil to deposit eggs

Considerations

• Crop, gizzard, gonads, ovary, stomach/intestine; similar to many other vertebrates and invertebrates

• Greenish brown exterior coloring for camouflage in environment

• Jumping legs for escaping predators quickly

• Chitinous exoskeleton for internal protection

• Single large dorsal blood vessel

• Ventral center nerve cord

• Open circulatory system

• Food passes through mouth esophagus  crop gizzard stomach, intestine, rectum, anus

• Breathes via spiracles

• Malpighian tubules empty products into intestine → anus
  
  

CRAYFISH

1. Antennae

How to locate: longer antennae sticking out of head

Function: physically detect environment and navigate in dark waters

2. Anteunnules

How to locate: shorter below the antennae

Function: helps maintain balance in water

3. Chelipeds

How to locate: first pair of legs/appendages with big claws

Function: defend themselves, grab prey, and move obstacles in water

4. Walking legs

How to locate: small legs behind the chelipeds

Function: locomotion in water, bringing food to mouthparts

5. Gills

How to locate: attached to base of walking legs and chelipeds

Function: extracts oxygen from water/ carbon dioxide to diffuse out, maintain salt/water balance, excretes waste

6. Telson

How to locate: very end, triangular(no pair) attached to abdomen

Function: escaping fast, steering, excretion, and housing anus

7. Uropods

How to locate: attached to telson(rest of fan shape)

Function: similar to telson and protection of eggs

8. Carapace

How to locate: rigid chitinous exoskeleton

Function: protection of vital internal organs; empty at bottom, allowing for water to continue flowing under into gills

9. Ovary

How to locate: find yellow-ish Y or H- shaped organ; dorsal to stomach

Function: where eggs develop and secretes reproductive hormones

10. Testes

How to locate: directly under the heart; cream colored/translucent

Function: where sperm is produced

11. Digestive gland(liver and pancreas)

How to locate: sits both sides and posterior to stomach; yellow-ish green(or tan)

Function: secretes enzymes, nutrient absorption, stores glycogen, fat, and minerals, processes absorbed nutrients for energy and synthesize vital proteins

12. Intestine

How to locate: dark, thin straight tube running along center of abdomen

Function: moves solid indigestible materials as fecal strings to anus, absorbs salts and water from waste before excretion to maintain internal fluid balance

• foregut(esophagus/stomach): food is ground up and broken down

• midgut(digestive gland): secretes digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients

• hindgut(intestine/anus): passage for indigestible waste

13. Stomach

How to locate: large sac-like and relatively firm structure right after head and before heart

Function: gastric mill grinds up food, sends small food particles to DG for digestion/absorption and indigestible waste to intestine

14. Body regions

How to locate: Cephalothorax first, then abdomen; abdomen is where the segments start

Function: C; protects vital internal organs A; where tail helps movement, reproduction, and respiration(water circulation)

15. Heart

How to locate: small diamond shaped organ located in dorsal thorax

Function: contracts and pumps blood and nutrients to organs, deoxygenated blood pools in sinus → flows through gills → filters out

16. Green gland

How to locate: flat, round, and spongy texture anterior to stomach and ventral

Function: filters waste(ammonia), absorbs salts from water while producing diluted urine because it absorbs excess water

Considerations 

• Green glands, digestive glands, stomach, ovary, heart, legs, antennae

• Carapace and chelipeds help for defense/protection

• Countershading; darker when looked from above to be less noticeable

• Blood vessels located dorsally

• Central nerve cord located ventrally

• Open circulatory system

• Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine, anus

• Breathes via gills and water pressure along swimmerets

• Green glands(similar to human kidneys) and anus excretes waste

FISH

1. Operculum

How to locate: flap behind eyes and mouth

Function: protection of gills and also pushes water into gills for respiration

2. Lateral line

How to locate: faint line running across body

Function: water-filled canals with pores to sense vibrations in water; acts as listening device for water turbulence

3. Nares

How to locate: between mouth and eyes

Function: natural chemical sensors to detect food, predators, and mates(smelling, not breathing)

4. Anus

How to locate: in front of urogenital opening AND anal fin(connected to intestine)

Function: releases undigested food and waste/terminal opening for digestive tract

5. Intestine

How to locate: tubular organ running along bottom and under other gonad

Function: absorbs proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into circulatory system, receives bile to further break down food, posterior end of intestine absorbs necessary salts and water

6. Liver

How to locate: located near the front, before stomach/intestine

Function: produces bile, stores energy, filters out blood, metabolism and synthesis of macromolecules, stores nutrients

7. Heart

How to locate: dark red heart under pectoral fins

Function: two chambered; atrium receives blood and pumps to ventricle, ventricle contracts powerfully to force blood out

8. Urogenital opening

How to locate: right in front of anal fin(behind anus)

Function: urine excreted through opening and gametes(sperm and egg) are released through

9. Kidney

How to locate: dark red mass pressed up against body cavity, above air bladder

Function: salt and water balance, filter waste and toxins, produce blood cells and hormones

10. Stomach

How to locate: slightly curved, white structure above other gonad and under liver

Function: stores food(as they swallow food whole), mechanical and chemical digestion

11. Air bladder

How to locate: translucent white structure above gonad, towards middle

Function: adjusts specific gravity as it absorbs gases(as it moves to different depths)

12. Gonad 

How to locate: male; paired Y-shape and cream-ish colored female; one big structure laying right on top

Function: male; produce sperm and fertilize egg female; sac that contains small fish eggs

13. Gills

How to locate: under operculum, arched structures

Function: O2 diffuse in, CO2 exits

Considerations

• Anus, intestine, liver, heart, stomach

• Smooth and scaly body, fins for balance

• Countershading; darker on top

• Both dorsal and ventral blood vessels

• Central nerve cord is dorsal

• Closed circulatory system

• Mouth, esophagus, stomach, pyloric caeca, intestine, anus

• Breathes through gill capillaries; O2 rich and poor blood go in and out as water flows between lamellae and as blood flows through capillaries

• Gills diffuse waste as kidneys(blood filtration), waste excreted through cloaca

RAT

1. Vibrissae

How to locate: look like whiskers of rat

Function: sensing around by moving whiskers around, spatial mapping, texture discrimination and movement coordination(similar to antennae of crayfish)

2. Urogenital opening

How to locate: male; at tip of penis under prepuce female; two openings, urogenital and vaginal

Function: male; excreting waste and ejecting semen female; for urination

3. Anus

How to locate: male; posterior to scrotal sacs females; posterior to vaginal orifice

Function: waste excretion and defecation control(opening and closing)

4. Lungs

How to locate: inside the chest cavity on both sides of the heart, above diaphragm

Function: respiration as air enters and travels to alveoli, O2 diffuses from here into blood, when diaphragm contracts/expands it allows lungs to expand, cellular respiration

5. Diaphragm

How to locate: dome-shaped sheet

Function: inhale; gets contracts to open up more space for lungs exhale; expands and pushes air out of lungs

6. Liver

How to locate: right under diaphragm

Function: produces bile that is directly secreted into the small intestine(for chemical digestion), regulates blood glucose by storing excess sugar as glycogen, synthesizes cholesterol and processes proteins, filters waste, stores vitamins and minerals, produces essential blood plasma proteins

7. Stomach

How to locate: J-shaped organ on left side of upper cavity, overlapped

Function: food storage, mechanical and chemical digestion

8. Heart

How to locate: middle of thoracic cavity, between lungs

Function: right atrium/ventricle receives and pumps deoxygenated blood from body into lungs

Left atrium and ventricle receives O2 rich blood from lungs and into rest of the body

Four valves ensure blood flow direction

9. Kidneys

How to locate: dark red bean shaped organs

Function: blood filtration of metabolic waste and and fluid balance of water levels and urine production, produces hormones

10. Testes

How to locate: oval organs anterior to anus

Function: sperm production and hormone production

11. Ovary

How to locate: small oval-shaped glands and the top of uterine horns

Function: production of ova and hormone production

12. Uterine horn

How to locate: paired Y-shaped branch of uterus 

Function: embryo implantation, development of multiple fetuses, fetus nutrition and protection

13. Small intestine 

How to locate: long squiggly line of intestine under liver

Function: duodenum receives partly digested food and mixes it with bile from liver and digestive enzymes from pancreas

Jejunum: mechanical breakdown of food via contractions and chemical digestion of carbohydrates and proteins

Ileum: absorb remaining nutrients before excretion

14. Large intestine

How to locate: connects to end of small intestine, extends to anus

Function: cecal fermentation, water and salt absorption, and waste elimination

15. Spleen

How to locate: small and elongated organ, left of stomach

Function: blood filtration(destroys old damaged blood cells to recycle iron, blood storage

16. Caecum

How to locate: between small and large intestine, comma-shaped

Function: cellulose fermentation, nutrient absorption, water and electrolytes rehydration

Considerations

• Spleen, large intestine, small intestine, ovary, kidneys, heart, liver, anus, lungs, stomach

• Whiskers, tail, incisors help in environment

• Countershading; darker backs than bellies

• Large blood vessels located ventrally

• Central nerve cord located dorsally

• Closed circulatory system

• Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, caecum, large intestine, rectum, anus

• Breathes through nostrils → alveoli(air sacs) → diaphragm

• Double loop system with 4 heart chambers

FROG

1. Tympanic membrane

How to locate: circular patch of skin behind eyes

Function: vibration detection, transfer, pressure equalization

2. Nictitating membrane

How to locate: inner corner of eye

Function: shields eye from dirt/debris, maintains vision, cleans eyes by spreading moisture

3. Nares

How to locate: external located tip of snout, internal on roof of mouth

Function: respiration and olfaction to detect smell

4. Liver

How to locate: immediately below heart and lungs

Function: produces bile, converts digested food into useful energy and stores glycogen and vitamins, and maintains healthy blood sugar levels, filters blood

5. Gallbladder

How to locate: underside of liver, small and greenish

Function: bile storage, fat digestion, and nutrient absorption

6. Stomach

How to locate: J-shaped organ behind the liver

Function: mechanical breakdown and chemical digestion, and chyme production

7. Fatbodies

How to locate: bright yellow and orange

Function: energy storage and nutrition support for mating, metamorphosis fuel and insulation/buoyancy

8. Ovary

How to locate: large lobed sacs near kidneys

Function: ovary production, hormone production and egg release

9. Testes

How to locate: on top of kidneys, small bean shaped white structures

Function: sperm production and passageway, hormone production

10. Oviduct

How to locate: long tangled tubes that are creamy or yellowish

Function: collects eggs, jelly coats eggs to protect them, storage of eggs(temporary uterus)

11. Kidney

How to locate: pressed towards back of spine, dark red elongated and a little flattened beans

Function: waste filtration, water and salt balance regulation, urogenital connection as part of reproductive tract

12. Spleen 

How to locate: dark red oval shape near stomach and large intestine

Function: filtering blood, recycle blood cells, and help immune system

13. Small intestine

How to locate: slender coiled tube held in place by mesentery

Function: duodenum receives bile(produced in liver, stored in gallbladder) and pancreatic juice(produced by pancreas)

Ileum absorbs digested nutrients into circulatory system

14. Large intestine

How to locate: directly follows small intestine, short, straight, and wider tube

Function: absorbs remaining water and salts(internal hydration) compacts waste into solid

15. Pancreas

How to locate: thin and flatten long gland with bumpy texture, pale cream yellow color, between stomach and duodenum

Function: produces pancreatic juice and sends it directly into small intestine

16. Cloaca

How to locate: small muscular opening/flap

Function: receives undigested food to excrete it and collects urinary waste, release point for gametes

Considerations

• Cloaca, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine, spleen, tympanic(grasshopper) and nictitating membrane(bird), liver, gallbladder, stomach, kidney, ovary

• Powerful hind legs, semipermeable skin for respiration, webbed feet

• Countershading; darker backs

• Large blood vessels located dorsally

• Central nerve cord also located dorsally

• Closed circulatory system

• Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, cloaca

• Breathes through nares and also semi-permeable skin by diffusion(similar to worm(but not entirely))

• Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, cloaca all for excretion

BIRD

1. Ear opening

How to locate: below bird’s eyes and under feathers

Function: channels sound to inner eardrum while cutting back excess noise, protection from debris, has directional hearing

2. Testes

How to locate: most lack testes, smooth long cream bean-shaped structures

Function: produce sperm and synthesize hormones

3. Ovaries

How to locate: behind lungs and near kidneys, flat cluster of clear-ish eggs

Function: produces and matures ova and secretes hormones

4. Kidneys

How to locate: behind lungs and tucked in dorsally, flatten lobes

Function: produces uric acid with toxic nitrogenous waste, water and salt balance, hormone production

5. Oviduct

How to locate: under ovary like funnel

Function: surrounds ovulated yolk and fertilize it

6. cloaca/vent

How to locate: at base of tail under feathers, opening/slit on skin

Function: collects solid and liquid waste to excrete and also collects gametes to release

7. Gizzard

How to locate: between stomach and intestine, tough red muscular tissue

Function: further breaks down food

8. Small intestine

How to locate: starts at gizzard with three sections

Function: chemical digestion with bile and pancreatic enzymes and also absorbs nutrients

9. Large intestine

How to locate: shorter and at junction of caeca

Function: water and salt absorption, store waste for little while, excess water can be reabsorbed when uric acids moves back into intestine

10. Pancreas

How to locate: between ascending and descending loops of small intestine, pinkish or yellowish brown

Function: enzyme secretion and hormone regulation

11. Primary feathers

How to locate: sharp and pointed tips of wings, positioned at very outer end

Function: push the bird forward when flapping, adjust surface control of wing, lift the bird up

12. Secondary feathers

How to locate: closer to body than primary feathers with more rounded tips

Function: generates aerodynamic lift after primary feathers lift off and also supports as the bird maintains stability in the air

13. Crop

How to locate: sits at back of throat

Function: allow bird to quickly swallow whole and store, moisten up food, store to feed chicks, 

14. Liver 

How to locate: above stomach next to pectoralis muscles

Function: digestion and bile production, metabolism, stores molecules and vitamins, detoxification

15. Stomach(proventriculus and gizzard)

How to locate: proventriculus is after esophagus and heart

Function: p; secretes gastric juices and breaks down proteins and softens hard food g; physically grinds up food

16. Caecum

How to locate: parallel tubes right before cloaca, dark-colored, pasty consistency

Function: fermentation of carbohydrates, water and salt absorption, helps in immune system

17. Nictitating membrane

How to locate: translucent covering on eyes

Function: moisturizes eyes, protects eyes from debris

18. Air sacs

How to locate: balloon-like sacs near lungs, paired or singular

Function: air absorbed is sent to posterior sacs → lung → posterior sacs → anterior sacs → expelled out via windpipe

Considerations

• Nictitating membrane and air sacs(frogs), stomach, gizzard, crop, liver, pancreas, large and small intestine, cloaca, kidneys, testes, heart

• Bird bones are hollow and air filled to make the bird lighter for easier flight

• Strong beaks, clawed feet, and structure of wings help in habitat

• Countershading; darker and differently colored from above

• Large blood vessels located ventrally

• Central nerve cord located dorsally

• Closed circulatory system

• Mouth, esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, small intestine, large intestine, cloaca

• Breathes through air sacs that receive and expel air

• Liver, kidneys, and ureters all involved in excretion

Kingdom Animalia 

• 4 characteristics of all animals

  • Eukaryotic

  • Heterotrophic

  • Cells lack cell walls(distinguishment of animals from fungi)

  • multicellular(distinguishment of animals from protists)

• 9 Phyla 

  • Porifera: sponges

  • Cnidaria: jellyfish, hydra, coral, sea anemones

  • Platyhelminthes: flatworms

  • Nematoda: roundworms

  • Mollusca: clams, snails, squid

  • Annelida: earthworms, leeches

  • Arthropoda: insects, crustaceans, arachnids, chilopeds, diplopeds

  • Echinodermata: sea stars, urchins

  • Chordata: all vertebrates(fish, birds, amphibians, reptiles, mammals)

• Types of symmetry

  • Asymmetrical: no symmetry

  • Radial: two identical halves by longitudinal cut through center

  • Bilateral: only cut into two identical halves

• Anatomical descriptions

  • Anterior: head

  • Posterior: tail

  • Ventral: lower side

  • Dorsal: upper side

• Body Cavities

  • Ectoderm: outer layer

  • Mesoderm: middle layer

  • Endoderm: inner layer

• Acoelomate: 3 layers packed tightly(no body cavity besides digestive cavity

• Pseudocoelomate: have additional cavity between endo and mesoderm but not completely lined by meso

• Coelomate: fluid-filled cavity within mesoderm(most organs housed here)

  • All coelomates classified as either protostome or deuterostome

  • Opening of digestive tract during embryonic development is called blastopore

  • Blastopore → mouth: protosome

  • Blastopore → anus: deuterostrome

Phylum Cordata

• Characteristics

  • Notochord: flexible rod along dorsal surface → backbone

  • Nerve cord: hollow, dorsally located; anterior end develops into brain

  • Pharyngeal: throat/gill slits(closes up as embryo develops)

    • ALL HAVE COELOMATE BODY CAVITY AND DEUTEROSTROMES

• Subphyla of Chordates

  • Urochordata: Tunicates; no vertebrae(marine) sea squirts, sea peaches

  • Cephalocordata: Lancelets; fish-like, marine

  • Vertebrata: vertebrates

    • Possess internal skeleton

    • Possess spinal column(supports spinal cord)

    • Distinct head w/ skull and brain

• 8 Classes of Vertebrates

  • Myxini: hagfish

  • Cephalaspidomorphi: lampreys

  • Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fishes

  • Osteichthyes: bony fishes

  • Amphibia: frogs, toads

  • Reptilia: snakes, lizards

  • Aves: birds

  • Mammalia

    • Monotremes: egg laying

    • Marsupials: pouched mammals

    • Placental mammals

• 2 Chambered heart: 1 atrium, 1 ventricle

  • Fish

• 3 Chambered heart: 2 atria, 1 ventricle

  • Amphibians, reptiles(exception: crocodilian)

• 4 Chambered heart: 2 atria, 2 ventricles

  • Crocodilian, birds, mammals

• Excretion

  • Ammonia: toxic, must be quickly expelled

    • Aquatic animals(fishes)

  • Urea: mixed with more water → urine

    • Mammals, amphibians, sharks, some bony fish

  • Uric acid: pasty(water re-absorbed)

    • Birds, many reptiles, insects, snails

• Fertilization

  • External: sperm fertilizes eggs outside of female body

    • Bony fish, jawless fish, amphibians(not salamanders)

  • Internal: sperm fertilizes eggs inside of female body

    • Reptiles, birds, mammals, cartilaginous fish, salamanders

• Reproduction

  • Oviparous: laying eggs

    • Bony fish, jawless fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, monotremes

  • Ovoviviparous: eggs carried inside body until hatched

    • Some cartilaginous fish, some bony fish, some snakes

  • Viviparous: young develops inside female(not egg)

    • Marsupials, placental mammals, some sharks

Human Body Systems

• Heart: right atrium and left atrium receive blood from the body; right ventricle and left ventricle pumps blood out

• Kidneys: filtration; blood enters nephron, filtrate flows in, leaving only blood cells and large substances reabsorption; water and other substances reabsorbed through capillary walls excretion; remaining waste called urine(collecting ducts are called ureters)

• Liver: filters toxins from body, regulates blood sugar, produces bile for fat digestion and producing proteins for blood clotting and fluid balance

• Pancreas: acts as digestion and blood sugar control; produces digestive enzymes to break down and neutralize stomach acids; releases insulin

• Gallbladder: stores and concentrate bile, and release it into small intestine when digestion starts

• Small intestine: break down food the most, absorb most nutrients and act as immune barrier

• Large intestine: absorbs water and electrolytes(salts), forms, stores, and eliminates wastes

• Spleen: blood filtration by recycling blood cells and aid immune system by detecting pathogens

• Diaphragm: contract and flattens to bring in and push out air of lungs as the body breathes(rat)

• Testes: sperm production and hormone secretion

• Ovaries: producing, fertilizing and releasing eggs, and sex hormone secretion

• Stomach: store and mechanically break down food, and secrete enzymes to extract nutrients