Integrated Science Exam 2

Water Properties

  • Polar

  • Excellent solvent

  • Cohesive and adhesive forces

  • Maintains stable temperature

  • Density of water is greatest at 4 degrees celsius


Solvent nature

  • Capable of dissolving other substances


Cohesion and Adhesion = Capillary action

  • Cohesion- water molecules stick to each other because of hydrogen bonds at the surface of the liquid creating surface tension

  • Adhesion- water molecules stick to other substances

  • Capillary action- water rises in narrow tubes (against gravity) 


Specific Heat and Heat of Vaporization

  • Specific heat- the amount of energy needed to raise temperature of 1 gram of substance 1 degree celsius (water has a high specific heat because of the hydrogen bonds)

  • Heat of vaporization- calories required to change 1 gram of liquid to 1 gram of vapor


Density

Density of Water is greatest at 4 degrees C

  • Most substances increase in density with decreasing temperature 

  • Water has max density at 4 degrees Celsius and expands again as temperature decreases

    • Ex lakes and ponds, ice



Acids

  • Acid: a compound that ionizes in water to yield H+(hydrogen) ions and an anion

    • Acid is a proton donor (H+) 

    • Acids take electrons from atoms which breaks stuff down since the electron they were sharing was taken

    • HCI → H+  +  Cl-1        strong acids

      • Releases a lot of free protons 

      • When put in water it breaks apart


Bases

  • Base: a compound that ionizes in water to yield OH- (hydroxide) and a cation

    • Base is a proton acceptor 

    • NaOH → Na+ OH-


pH scale

  • The pH scale is used to measure acidity 

  • pH = - log [H+]  

  • Log function is saying how many multiples of 10 are in a number.

    • Ex. log 100 = 2 (10x10)

    • Ex. log 1000 = 3 (10x10x10)

    • Ex. log 1,000,000 = 6 (10x10x10x10) 

    • Ex. log 0.01 = -2

    • Ex. log 0.001 = -3

Scale

  • 0 - Acidic

  • 7 - Water (neutral) 

    • Balanced on the scale of hydroxide 

  • 14 - Basic

  • pH 7 vs pH 5 - 5 is 100x more acidic than 7 

    • because there is 2 number difference which makes it 100 

  • pH 8 vs pH 11 - 1000x more basic 

  • Blood = 7.4



Salts and Buffers


Life Characteristics

  1. Composed of cells 

    1. Cells: the simplest unit of living matter

  2. Capable of growth and development 

    1. Convert raw materials to own structures or use

    2. Number of cells or size of cells

    3. Development: includes all the changes that take place during the life of an organism: size, differentiation for function, shape/form (morphogenesis) 

  3. Acquire Materials and Energy

    1. Self-regulate through metabolism 

      1. Metabolism - all the chemical activities and energy transformations that are essential to growth, maintenance, and reproduction

      2. Ex. Photosynthesis, herbivores, carnivores

    2. Conduct homeostasis 

      1. Def - automatic tendencies or mechanisms to maintain an appropriate internal environment 

  4. Movement 

  5. Respond to stimuli - inside and outside the body

  6. Reproduce - Pass on genetic material

  7. Adaptation 


Biblical and Secular views

Biblical Aspects of Life

  1. “Life” (nephesh), whole physical being (“soul”) 

    1. Genesis 1:20, 30

  2. “Breath of Life” (ruach - Hebrew)

    1. Gen 2:7; 6:17, Job 34:14

  3. “Blood” (“the life of the flesh is in the blood”)

    1. Leviticus 17:11



Nephesh

  • “life” (nephesh), whole physical being (”soul”) [genesis 1;20,30] 


Development

  • includes all the changes that take place during the life of an organism: size, differentiation for function, shape/form (morphogenesis) 

Metabolism and Homeostasis

  • Metabolism: all the chemical activities and energy transformations that are essential to growth, maintenance, and reproduction (Ex. Photosynthesis, herbivores, carnivores)

  • Homeostasis: automatic tendencies or mechanisms to maintain an appropriate internal environment 


Population, Community, and Ecosystem

  • Population = same species in a particular region

  • Community = populations of different species 

  • Ecosystem = communities with non-living environment

  • Ecosphere = the earth as a whole with all living and nonliving components


Taxonomy

  • Science of classifying and naming living organisms 

  • John ray wrote “The WIsdom of God Manifested in the Works of Creation”



Binomial System of Nomenclature

  • Domain → Kingdom → Phylum/Division → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species


Ray and Linnaeus

  • John Ray (1627-1705) He wrote, The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of Creation

  • 18th Century Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) developed two-part naming system, aka the binomial system


Classification hierarchy (from specific to broadest or vice-versa)

  • Domain → Kingdom → Phylum/Division → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species



Kingdoms of Domain Eukarya

  1. Protista

    1. Single-celled or simple multi-celled eukaryotes

    2. Microscopic 

  2. Fungi

    1. Mushrooms and stuff

  3. Plantae

    1. Plants

  4. Animalia

    1. Also includes insects and sea animals

    2. 1 Cor. 15:39 - Differences between animals and between man

    3. Gen 1:26-27 - In his own image

    4. Humans are homo sapiens



Organic compounds

  • Organic compounds - carbon

    • Covalently bonded in complex structures “backbones”

    • Hydrocarbons - compounds containing just H and C

    • Energy is stored in the bonds

    • H atoms bonded to a carbon skeleton can be replaced by other groups of atoms called functional groups. Different functional groups differ in polarity and thus are hydrophilic and -phobic

    • **Put a name to the functional groups/shapes (5: hydroxyl carboxyl amino sulfhydryl phosphate)


Importance of Carbon to macromolecules

  • Carbon is the fundamental building block of all macromolecules, meaning it serves as the primary structural component of large, complex molecules essential for life, like proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), carbohydrates, and lipids, due to its unique ability to form stable covalent bonds with up to four different atoms, allowing for the creation of diverse and intricate molecular structures.


Functional Groups that attach to carbon ‘skeleton’ (see figure)

  • hydroxyl 

  • carboxyl 

  • amino 

  • sulfhydryl 

  • phosphate


Dehydration synthesis and Hydrolysis

  • Dehydration Synthesis - process of covalently linking monomers (BUILDING) (water doesn’t let molecules bond because they are always pulling them)

  • Hydrolysis - process of breaking polymer chains by adding water (breaks the bonds by adding water)


Structure and functions of Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, & Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

  • Examples: Bread, Potato, Pasta

  • Carbohydrate : hydrate or water of carbon

  • Compounds containing C, H, O in a ratio of CH2O and classified as mono-, di-, or poly- saccharides 

  • Simple sugar (monosaccharide)

  • Double sugar (disaccharide)

  • Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3-6 carbon atoms 

    • Ex. Glucose and Fructose

  • Disaccharides - consists of 2 covalently bonded monosaccharides 

    • Ex. Sucrose = glucose + fructose

  • Polysaccharides - large linkages of monosaccharides

    • Ex. Starch (chain of glucose)

  • Functions of Carbohydrates

    • Energy - from food

    • Structure - cellulose and chitin


Lipids

  • Ex. fats, oils, waxes 

  • Non-polar covalent bonds (don't mix with water, must be nonpolar with no charge)

  • Hydrophobic 

  • Macromolecules composed to C, H, and O, but relatively less Oxygen in proportion to H and C than carbohydrates 

  • Lipids contain a glycerol and 1, 2, or 3 fatty acids


  • Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats

  • Saturated - contains the maximum # of H atoms possible

    • butter

  • Unsaturated - contains double bonds with Carbon (kink in it)

  • Functions

  1. Biological fuel - fat; twice the energy/gram as carbohydrates (fat has lots of covalent bonds)

  2. Components of cell membranes - phospholipids 

  3. Hormones - steroids; 4 interlocking rings of C 

    1. Chemical messenger


Protein 

  • Macromolecules formed by amino acids contain C, H, O, N and usually S

  • 20 Common amino acids each contains: 

  1. An amino group 

  2. A carboxyl group

  • Both are linked to a carbon, called the a-carbon (alpha)

  • But differ in the side chain (R group) also attached in the alpha carbon

Structure = Function - 1 degree to 4 degree structure is key

  • Denatured proteins have loss of activity due to change in shape 

    • Temperature can change the shape

    • Acids and bases can also change the protein shape - that is why pH is important to maintain 

Functions:

  1. Structure of cells and tissues

(=function; blood, muscle, antibodies, hemoglobin)

  1. Enzymes to run chemical reactions 

    1. Enzyme is a facilitator 

    2. Allows for reactions to go forward without as much activation energy


Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules composed of nucleotides which are:

  1. A 5 carbon sugar either ribose or deoxyribose 

  2. A phosphate group 

  3. A nitrogen base: either a purine or pyrimidine 

Purines = Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines = Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil

Function:

  1. Genetic code - formation of amino acid sequence

    1. Instructions of life are in these nucleic acids

    2. Tells the cell what to do with the order 

    3. Determines primary sequence 



Plasma membrane structure

  • Components of cell membranes - phospholipids 

    • Similar to soap

    • Doesn’t dissolve in water but still likes water

    • Phospholipids in bilayer with proteins

    • Anything charged or big cannot get through the cell wall 














Protein organization and levels

  1. Primary Structure - linear sequence of amino acids in a chain

  2. Secondary Structure - predictable coiling of chain due to H-bonds between amino acids (ex. Alpha helix of hair)

    1. Alpha helix (coily)

    2. Beta sheet (pleated)

  3. Tertiary - overall 3 dimensional shape by chain as folds and twists Due to covalent (disulfide), ionic, and H-bonds

  4. Quaternary - Two or more polypeptide chains that are individual chains but grouped together in a specific arrangement

    1. Rubisco 

    2. Hemoglobin


DNA and RNA

  • DNA - sugar (deoxyribose) + phosphate + either Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, or Thymine

  • RNA - sugar (ribosome) + phosphate + either Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, or Uracil


Purines and Pyrimidines

  • Purines = Adenine and Guanine

  • Pyrimidines = Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil


Double helix

  • A "double helix" refers to the three-dimensional structure of DNA, where two strands of nucleotides twist around each other, forming a spiral shape similar to a twisted ladder, with the "rungs" of the ladder being pairs of bases that connect the two strands together; this structure is crucial for storing genetic information and allowing DNA to replicate accurately.


ATP

  • Energy - ATP needed for cells to work

  • High energy in the bond between the last 2 phosphates (2nd and 3rd)

  • In biology, ATP stands for "Adenosine Triphosphate," which is a molecule considered the primary energy currency of cells, storing and transferring energy needed for various cellular processes like muscle contraction, nerve impulses, and chemical synthesis; essentially, it's the "fuel" that cells use to function.

  • Structure:

    • It consists of an adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups attached to the sugar. 

  • Energy release:

    • When a cell needs energy, it breaks off one phosphate group from ATP, releasing energy in the process. 

  • Regeneration:

    • ATP is constantly being regenerated through processes like cellular respiration and photosynthesis.