International History 1870–1945 - Chapter 3: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1930s

The Rise of Extremism

Impact of the Great Depression

'Black Friday' and Global Economic Effects

The Great Depression, triggered by 'Black Friday' in 1929, wasn't just a stock market crash; it was a global economic catastrophe. It caused widespread deflation, bank failures, and soaring unemployment rates. In the United States, industrial production plummeted by nearly 50%, and unemployment reached 25%. Globally, trade contracted, and economies spiraled downward. This created an environment where people lost faith in democratic institutions and capitalist systems, making them more susceptible to extremist ideologies that promised radical solutions.

Economic Problems and Extremism

Economic hardships acted as a catalyst for political extremism in various countries:

• Japan: Economic struggles, compounded by a lack of natural resources, fueled militaristic expansion. The military gained influence by promising to secure resources through conquest, leading to an aggressive foreign policy in Asia.

• Germany: The Weimar Republic was already fragile, but the economic crisis delivered a fatal blow. Hyperinflation in the early 1920s had wiped out savings, and the Depression brought mass unemployment. Extremist parties, like the Nazis, exploited this desperation by promising to restore national pride and economic stability.

• Spain: Economic issues exacerbated existing political tensions between left-wing Republicans and right-wing Nationalists. Land inequality, labor unrest, and regional separatism were all intensified by the economic crisis, ultimately leading to the Spanish Civil War.

The Rise of Dictators

Germany - Hitler

• Opposition to the Treaty of Versailles: Hitler vehemently opposed the Treaty of Versailles, viewing it as a national humiliation. He argued that it unfairly punished Germany, imposed crippling reparations, and led to territorial losses, fostering a deep sense of resentment among Germans.

• Rearmament: Hitler openly defied the Treaty of Versailles by initiating a massive rearmament program. This not only violated international agreements but also stimulated the German economy, reduced unemployment, and boosted his popularity. He rebuilt the army, navy, and air force, preparing Germany for future expansion.

• Lebensraum: Hitler's concept of Lebensraum (living space) was central to his expansionist agenda. He believed that the German people needed more territory in Eastern Europe to thrive, which would be acquired at the expense of Slavic populations. This desire drove his aggressive foreign policy and ultimately led to war.

• Concerns: Hitler's policies caused alarm and concern in France, Italy, Russia, and Britain. France feared a resurgent Germany, while Italy initially tried to contain Hitler's ambitions. Russia worried about the threat to its western border, and Britain hoped to appease Hitler to avoid war, though his actions increasingly strained this policy.

Japan

• Invasion of Manchuria (1931): Japan's invasion of Manchuria was a clear act of aggression driven by the desire for resources and territory. It demonstrated Japan's expansionist ambitions and its willingness to defy international norms.

• Withdrawal from League of Nations (1933): Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in response to international criticism of its actions in Manchuria. This further isolated Japan and signaled its disregard for international law and cooperation.

• Anti-Comintern Pact (1936): Japan formed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany, solidifying an alliance with another aggressive power. This pact was ostensibly aimed at countering the spread of communism, but it also created a bloc of nations that challenged the existing world order.

Italy - Mussolini

• Aggressive Foreign Policy (Post-1934): Mussolini shifted to a more aggressive foreign policy after 1934, seeking to emulate the Roman Empire and expand Italy's influence in the Mediterranean and Africa. He aimed to establish Italy as a major power on the world stage.

• Invasion of Abyssinia (1935): Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) was a blatant act of aggression that violated international law and norms. It demonstrated Mussolini's expansionist ambitions and his willingness to defy the League of Nations.

• Withdrawal from League of Nations: Italy withdrew from the League of Nations due to sanctions imposed by the organization in response to its invasion of Abyssinia. This further isolated Italy and aligned it with Germany.

• Alliance with Germany: Italy formed a close alliance with Germany, symbolized by the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936 and the Pact of Steel in 1939. This alliance solidified the partnership between Mussolini and Hitler and set the stage for their joint aggression in World War II.

Foreign Responses to the Civil War in Spain

Causes of the War

The Spanish Civil War was a complex conflict rooted in deep social, economic, and political divisions within Spanish society. These included:

• Social Inequality: Vast disparities in wealth and land ownership fueled social unrest.

• Economic Hardship: The Great Depression exacerbated economic problems, leading to widespread poverty and unemployment.

• Political Instability: The Second Republic (1931-1939) was plagued by political instability and violence.

Military Revolt

A military revolt led by General Francisco Franco in 1936 initiated the war. Franco, backed by right-wing forces, sought to overthrow the Republican government, leading to a brutal and devastating conflict.

League of Nations' Non-Intervention Policy

The League of Nations adopted a non-intervention policy, attempting to prevent the conflict from escalating into a wider European war. However, this policy was largely ineffective, as several countries intervened unofficially.

Involvement of Italy, Germany, and the USSR

• Italy and Germany: Provided military and financial support to Franco's Nationalist forces. This support was crucial to Franco's victory.

• USSR: Supported the Republican government with military aid and advisors. However, this support was limited and often came with political strings attached.

Franco’s Victory

Franco's victory in 1939 was due to a combination of factors, including:

• Military Support: Extensive military support from Italy and Germany.

• Internal Divisions: Internal divisions within the Republican forces, including conflicts between communists, socialists, and anarchists. The Republicans were also plagued by infighting and a lack of coordination.

Hitler’s Expansionist Policies

Hitler's Foreign Policy Aims

Hitler's foreign policy had several core aims:

• Overturn the Treaty of Versailles: He sought to dismantle the treaty's restrictions on Germany's military and territorial sovereignty.

• Rearm Germany: He aimed to rebuild Germany's military strength to project power and achieve his expansionist goals.

• Expand Territory: He wanted to acquire Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe for the German people, displacing or eliminating existing populations.

Failed Attempt at Anschluss (1934)

An initial attempt at Anschluss (union with Austria) in 1934 failed due to opposition from other European powers, particularly Italy under Mussolini, who was wary of German expansion in the region. Austrian Nazis attempted a coup, but it was suppressed by the Austrian government.

Rearmament of Germany

Hitler initiated the rearmament of Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. This included rebuilding the army, navy, and air force, as well as developing new weapons and military technologies. Rearmament was a key component of Hitler's plan to restore Germany's power and prestige.

Failure of the Stresa Front

The Stresa Front, consisting of Britain, France, and Italy, was formed in 1935 to counter Germany's rearmament and expansionist policies. However, the front collapsed after Italy's invasion of Abyssinia, which led to international sanctions and Italy's alignment with Germany.

Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)

Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936, a demilitarized zone under the Treaty of Versailles. This was a bold move that tested the resolve of Britain and France, who failed to respond decisively, emboldening Hitler further.

Treaties and Alliances

• Rome-Berlin Axis (1936): A political and military alliance between Italy and Germany, formalizing their cooperation and mutual support.

• Anti-Comintern Pact (1936): An agreement between Germany and Japan aimed at countering the spread of communism, but also solidifying their alliance against the Soviet Union.

Anschluss (1938)

Hitler successfully annexed Austria in 1938, achieving Anschluss and expanding Germany's territory. This was facilitated by the presence of pro-Nazi elements within Austria and the lack of effective opposition from other European powers.

Czechoslovakia (1939)

Germany annexed Czechoslovakia in 1939, violating the Munich Agreement and signaling the failure of appeasement. This act of aggression demonstrated Hitler's insatiable territorial ambitions and his willingness to break international agreements.

The League of Nations in the 1930s

Failure of Disarmament

Reasons for Failure of World Disarmament Conference (1932–33)

• French Refusal to Compromise: France was unwilling to compromise on disarmament due to fears of German aggression and the desire to maintain its military superiority.

• Hitler’s Insistence on Rearmament: Hitler demanded that Germany be allowed to rearm to an equal level with other powers, which was unacceptable to Britain and France.

• Effects of the Great Depression: The economic crisis made countries reluctant to reduce military spending, as they feared it would worsen unemployment and economic instability.

• Japanese Invasion of Manchuria: Japan's aggression undermined the credibility of the League and the disarmament efforts, as it demonstrated the ineffectiveness of collective security.

Germany’s Withdrawal from League of Nations (1933)

Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933, further undermining the organization's authority and signaling its intention to pursue an independent foreign policy.

Impact of Conference’s Failure on International Armaments Policies

The failure of the conference led to increased international rearmament, as countries sought to protect themselves in an increasingly unstable environment. This arms race contributed to rising tensions and the outbreak of World War II.

Manchuria and Abyssinia

Manchuria

• Japan’s Refusal to Withdraw: Japan refused to withdraw from Manchuria despite condemnation from the League of Nations, demonstrating its defiance of international norms.

• The League’s Investigating Commission and the Lytton Report: The League sent a commission to investigate the situation, resulting in the Lytton Report, which condemned Japan's actions but failed to compel it to withdraw.

• Japan’s Withdrawal from the League (1934): Japan withdrew from the League in response to the criticism, further weakening the organization's authority.

• Reluctance of Britain and France to Take Action: Britain and France were reluctant to take strong action against Japan due to their own economic and strategic interests in Asia.

Abyssinia

• Reasons for Reluctance to Act Against Italy:

  • Importance of Stresa Front: Britain and France wanted to maintain the Stresa Front with Italy to counter Germany.

  • Fear of War: They feared that taking strong action against Italy could lead to war.

  • Self-Interest: Their own interests were not directly threatened.

• Self-Interest of Britain and France:

  • Limited Sanctions: They only supported minor sanctions against Italy.

  • Hoare-Laval Pact: A secret agreement between Britain and France to appease Mussolini by giving him part of Abyssinia. The Hoare-Laval Pact was a secret proposal by British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French Prime Minister Pierre Laval to offer Mussolini most of Abyssinia in return for ending the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. The proposal caused public outrage and was quickly abandoned.

• Failure of Limited Sanctions: The League's limited sanctions failed to deter Italy's aggression, demonstrating the ineffectiveness of the organization's enforcement mechanisms.

• Italy’s Withdrawal from the League: Italy eventually withdrew from the League, further isolating itself and aligning with Germany.

Further Failures of the League

The League also failed to prevent:

• Spanish Civil War: The League's non-intervention policy allowed the conflict to escalate, with Italy and Germany supporting Franco's Nationalists and the Soviet Union supporting the Republicans.

• Japanese Invasion of China (1937): Japan's renewed aggression in China further exposed the League's inability to maintain peace and security.

The Major Powers and the League

• Hitler’s Resentment: Hitler resented the League’s association with the Treaty of Versailles, viewing it as an instrument of Allied oppression.

• Mussolini’s View: Mussolini saw the League as a means of maintaining British and French power and initially sought to use it to advance his own interests.

• Resentment of Weak Nations: Weak and vulnerable nations resented the League’s failure to confront aggression and provide collective security.

• Failure of Collective Security: The League failed to provide collective security to its members, as demonstrated by its inability to deter aggression in Manchuria, Abyssinia, and Czechoslovakia.

• Self-Interest of Britain and France: Britain and France prioritized their own interests over their commitment to the League, undermining its effectiveness.

The British and French Policy of Appeasement

Economic and Military Considerations

Fear of War

Appeasement was primarily driven by a desire to avoid another large scale war in Europe, given the recent horrors and devastation of World War I. The leaders and populations of Britain and France were traumatized by the war and sought to prevent a repeat of the conflict.

Impact of Great Depression

The Great Depression had weakened British and French economies, making them reluctant to engage in costly military actions. Both countries faced significant economic challenges and were wary of the financial burden of another war.

Harmful Sanctions

Imposing sanctions on aggressive nations like Italy and Germany would further harm British and French economies, which were already struggling due to the Depression. Sanctions could disrupt trade and investment, leading to further economic hardship.

Different Attitudes Regarding Germany’s Economic Resurgence

Britain and France had different views on Germany's economic recovery. Some in Britain believed that a strong German economy was essential for European stability, while France feared a resurgent Germany and sought to keep it weak.

Treaty of Versailles

Many British politicians felt the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh on Germany and that it was justifiable for Germany to seek to revise some of its terms. They believed that by addressing Germany's grievances, they could prevent further aggression.

Relations with the USSR

Western Fears of Communism

Western powers feared the spread of communism from the Soviet Union and viewed Stalin with suspicion and distrust. This ideological divide made it difficult to form a united front against Germany.

Stalin’s Hatred of the League

Stalin initially viewed the League of Nations as a tool of imperialism and did not trust its motives. He saw it as a forum for Britain and France to advance their own interests.

Fear of Germany and Japan

Growing concerns about Germany and Japan led the USSR to join the League in 1935. Stalin recognized the need for collective security in the face of rising aggression.

Stalin’s Desire for Better Relations

Stalin sought better relations with Britain and France to counter the threat from Germany. He hoped to form a military alliance to deter Hitler's expansionist ambitions.

British Reluctance to Form an Alliance

Britain was hesitant to form a formal alliance with the USSR due to ideological differences and distrust. Many British politicians were wary of aligning with a communist regime.

The Appeasement of Hitler

Failure of Stresa Front

The collapse of the Stresa Front weakened the policy of collective security, paving the way for appeasement. With Italy aligning with Germany, Britain and France were left to deal with Hitler's aggression on their own.

Lack of Opposition to Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936)

Britain and France did not oppose Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland due to a combination of factors:

• Fear of War: They were unwilling to risk another war over the issue.

• Lack of Public Support: There was a lack of public support for military action.

• Belief in Justification: Some believed that Germany was only reclaiming its own territory.

Lack of Opposition to Anschluss (1938)

Similar factors contributed to the lack of opposition to the Anschluss, along with the belief that Austria was culturally and linguistically German and thus it was justifiable. Many in Britain and France felt that Austria should be allowed to unite with Germany if it so desired.

Czechoslovakia and the Munich Crisis

Munich Conference

The Munich Conference involved Germany, Britain, France, and Italy. Czechoslovakia was excluded from the negotiations.

Agreements Made by Hitler

Hitler promised that the Sudetenland was his last territorial demand in Czechoslovakia. He assured Chamberlain and Daladier that he had no further ambitions in Eastern Europe.

Chamberlain’s Belief

Chamberlain naively believed that the Munich Agreement secured "peace for our time." He returned to Britain and declared that he had achieved a diplomatic triumph.

British Public Opinion

British public opinion largely supported the Munich Agreement, reflecting a desire to avoid war. Many people believed that Chamberlain had averted a major crisis.

Opposition to the Munich Agreement

Some individuals, such as Churchill, opposed the Munich Agreement, warning that it was a sign of weakness that would embolden Hitler. Churchill famously stated, "You were given the choice between war and dishonor. You chose dishonor and you will have war."

Reasons for the Outbreak of War in 1939

British Rearmament in Response to German Expansionism

German Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1939)

Germany's invasion of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 demonstrated that Hitler could not be trusted and that appeasement had failed. This was a turning point in British policy towards Germany.

Chamberlain’s Rejection of Appeasement

Chamberlain abandoned appeasement and adopted a more confrontational policy towards Germany. He realized that Hitler's ambitions were insatiable and that further concessions would only embolden him.

Limitations of Britain’s Military Preparations for War

Britain's military preparations for war were limited, reflecting the legacy of disarmament and the economic constraints of the Great Depression. Britain was not fully prepared for a major conflict in 1939.

Britain’s Guarantee to Poland and the Failure of Appeasement

Reasons for Guarantee

Britain guaranteed to support Poland against Germany to deter further aggression and uphold international law. This was a clear signal to Hitler that Britain would not tolerate further expansion.

Implications of the Guarantee

The guarantee to Poland meant that any German attack on Poland would lead to war with Britain. This commitment made war virtually inevitable.

Attempts to Avoid War

Attempts were made to avoid war through negotiations with Hitler, but these failed due to his intransigence and unwillingness to compromise.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

Hitler’s Motives

Hitler signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact to secure his eastern front, allowing him to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. This removed the threat of a two-front war for Germany.

Stalin’s Motives

Stalin signed the Pact to buy time to rearm, gain territory in Eastern Europe (such as parts of Poland, the Baltic states, and Bessarabia), and avoid being isolated in a war against Germany. He also distrusted the Western powers and saw the Pact as a way to protect Soviet interests.

Implications of the Pact

The Pact had major implications for:

• Poland: It was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, leading to its occupation and the outbreak of World War II.

• Britain and France: The Pact undermined their strategy of containing Germany, as it removed the threat of Soviet intervention.

• Germany: It allowed Germany to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention, triggering the start of World War II.

• USSR: It allowed the Soviet Union to expand its territory in Eastern Europe, strengthening its strategic position.

Germany’s Invasion of Poland

German Motives and Methods

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, to seize territory and expand its Lebensraum. The invasion was swift and brutal, employing Blitzkrieg tactics to overwhelm Polish defenses.

British Ultimatum

Britain issued an ultimatum to Germany demanding that it withdraw from Poland. This ultimatum was intended to give Hitler one last chance to avoid war.

Declaration of War

When Germany ignored the ultimatum, Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, marking the start of World War II.

Long-Term Causes of Second World War

The long-term causes of World War II included:

• The unresolved issues of World War I: The Treaty of Versailles left many nations dissatisfied and created conditions for resentment and instability.

• The rise of extremism: Fascism and Nazism promoted aggressive nationalism and expansionist policies that threatened international peace.

• The failure of the League of Nations: The League's inability to prevent aggression undermined collective security and emboldened aggressor nations.

• Appeasement: The policy of appeasement allowed Hitler to grow stronger and more aggressive, ultimately leading to war.

Historical Debate

Was there a long-term plan?

Historians debate whether Hitler had a long-term plan for European domination (a deliberate, staged plan) or whether he was simply an opportunist who exploited circumstances as they arose (a more opportunistic, reactive approach). Some argue that Hitler had a clear vision from the beginning, while others contend that he adapted his goals based on events and opportunities.