Untitled Flashcards Set

The rise of dictatorships after WWI

Nationalism and pseudo-scientific racial theories

One of the most powerful ideas to shape many modern European nations was nationalism. This was the belief that distinct ethnic, linguistic or cultural groups had the right to form their own nations. It often led to a strong sense of national pride and even competition between nations as governments used a sense of nationhood to bind their citizens together.

Nationalism was an important theme of many inter war dictatorships, some such as those in Italy, Japan and Germany promoted the rights of their nation above all others and justified expansionist aims as their national right. Some dictators such as Mussolini openly tried to draw on the symbolism of their nations ancient origins as a way of idealizing their nation's heritage.

In the 19th century many European scientists and philosophers developed powerful new ideas and technologies that challenged the traditional patterns of life for example Charles Darwin presented the theory of natural selection and theories of eugenics which were popularized in many parts of Europe which came to underpin a range of racist and discriminatory ideas.

The Weimer Constitution

The most controversial feature of Ebbett's new Weimer government was the constitution. The constitution offered the German people many new freedoms such as freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and equality of the sexes. The head of state was the president who was elected by the people for seven years and the president could appoint and dismiss the chancellor, close the Reichstag and call elections.

The problems built into the constitution provided legal and constitutional loopholes that could be manipulated by politicians such as Hitler. Article 48 gave the president emergency powers in the time of crisis the right to close parliament and issued decrees a most undemocratic element which if misused could undermine the democracy. Article 48 became known as the suicide clause as the president could override any aspect of the new constitution and use a military to keep order.

The Weimer republic suffered from a general lack of support among the civil service judiciary and the military. These people were fundamentally opposed to democracy. People who continued to own control or dominate the media, industry, agriculture, the judicial system, the police, the army, the bureaucracy, education and religion were people who were fundamentally opposed to the notion of democracy, these people became known as the conservative elite. The conservative elites would at best tolerate democracy when times were good and actively undermine it when times were bad.

Weimer culture was impressive and is still admired today. However it was predominantly centered on younger people and on Berlin. Older Germans, those living in rural areas and in regional areas hated it. They saw it as corrupt, a moral disgrace. Art styles such as expressionism and modernism were viewed as a betrayal of German values. The right hated the fact that many leading figures were communists or Jewish

Rise of Hitler and the nazi party

After the defeat of Germany Hitler was humiliated and angered especially by the terms of the treaty. In 1919 Hitler was drawn to the German workers party who drew influence from the Volkich movement. Hitler would soon become the leader and with his public speaking skills became a popular member of the DAP. Hitlers speaking topics were the hatred for the Versailles treaty, Anti-Democratic, Nationalistic, Anti-Marxist and Anti-Semitic. By 1920 the party was renamed as the national socialist German workers party otherwise known as the NAZIs (← included 'socialist' to get votes from the workers despite being against its ideas)

1919 – 50 members

1920 – 3000 members

1923 – Over 70,000 members

Significance of the Munich Putsch

While the Munich Beer hall Putsch failed, the publicity from the trial was a great political success. Hitler use the trial as an opportunity to demonstrate his skills as an orator. He argued that he wanted to restore the honor of the army and he wanted the November criminals to be made accountable for signing the treaty the trial was front page news throughout Germany and Hitler even impressed the judges at his trial. Therefore the Munich Putsch was to be of enormous significance for Hitler as he realized the only way he could gain power was legally (win an election). He also realized that in order to hold onto power in the future he would need the support of the army. Finally and most importantly Hitler rose to national prominence

In 1929 Goebbels becomes head of propaganda. After his release from prison, Hitler wanted to rejuvenate the Nazi party. He argued that the party had failed to overthrow the government by force and that they now had to follow a path of the legal process. Hitler wanted to enter parliament not because he believed in democracy but because he wanted to destroy it. They had to recruit the votes. Propaganda was therefore crucial in achieving this. Martin Broszat explains the importance of propaganda as a means of keeping the Nazi movement going even when electorally it was failing. This was the point of giant rallies and marches dominated by thousands of flag waving enthusiasts waiting to hear Hitler speak.

1929 would prove to be of great importance for Hitler. The Muller government agreed to the terms of the young plan (reduce reparations and spread them out until 1988 ← negative, had to accept war guilt). A right wing campaign was immediately launched and Hitler campaigned against the plan gaining a lot of publicity and bringing him to national attention

Impact of Depression

The economic crisis created by the depression lead to a political crisis which saw the effective end of German democracy as early as march 1930

The deflationary economic policy pursued by Bruning from march 1930 drove Germany deeper and deeper into depression

The suffering caused by the depression created feelings of desperation and psychological disillusionment within the German people, this led to a polarization of German politics and increasing violence in political life

It gave Hitler and the Nazi party the opportunity they had lacked during the superficially prosperous and stable period of the big 1920's

It made possible the behind the scenes maneuvering by the conservative elites which would lead to Hitlers appointment as chancellor

Nazi consolidation of power

Throughout 1933 the Nazis began a process known as Gleichschaltung, the Nazification of all aspects of society. The party asserted control over sporting and youth groups, trade unions and regional governments and administration. On the 1st of may the Nazis declared a day of national labor, a national holiday to celebrate German workers. The workers made up a significant portion of the Nazi party supporters thus keeping them on his side was an important part of the consolidation of power. On the 2nd of May police units were sent in to occupy all trade union headquarters and arrest its leaders – trade unions were now officially illegal.

On the 10th of May 1933 the burning of the books made it clear that the Nazis would not allow independent thinking in Germany. After the trade unions were banned, the SPD was officially banned on the 22nd of June 1933. By the 14th of July the Nazis had all political parties besides the Nazi party banned.

The mechanisms of state control were extended further during the second half of 1933 a concordant was signed by the Nazis on the 20th of July 1933 with the Catholic church. This was extremely important to Nazi consolidation of power as the Catholics still remained the largest political opponents of the regime. The Nazis agreed to respect the catholic rights while the Church agreed to abstain from political activities. The establishment of the Reich chamber of culture under the leadership of Goebbels coordinated the arts including music, film, literature, paintings and the media. It ensured that the creative and communicative sectors of society were brought into line. Control was also established over the press with legislation such as the editors law on the 4th of the October forbidding non Aryans from working in journalism

By the end of 1933 only the army and Hindenburg remained potential threats to the Nazis. For Hitler to consolidate his power he needed the support of the army and big businesses as they were needed to produce new planes, tanks, submarines and weaponry however both the army and big businesses despised the SA

Night of Long Knives

Officially the Nazis admitted that 85 people were killed although the number may have been as high as 200-300. In the days after a retrospective war – the law on state self-defense legalized all the murders committed. Two weeks later in a speech before the Reichstag, Hitler took full responsibility for the night of the long knives and ended the cause for the second revolution. It appeased the concerns of the German high command and the ailing president and furthered the political ambitions of Goering, Himmler and the SS. The SA was completely was completely undermined as a force and the following year had been reduced in size by 40%. The night of the long knives confirmed Hitlers ability to use terror tactics and violence to enforce control. Ian Kershaw sees great significance in the action of 30th of June. It ended any internal threat to Hitlers power brought the army behind Hitler and gave a clear warning to any individual and group within the country that the regime was willing to take any measures to hold onto power

Nazi ideology was a reflection of the beliefs of its leader. The essence of Ideology was instilled within Hitlers speeches, his writings and his policies. The key objectives of Nazi ideology were:

Nationalism and a strong Germany

The concept of Fuhrer and totalitarianism

The acceptance of social Darwinism and antisemitism

Lebensraum

Autarchy

Traditional conservative values

Ultimately all Nazi thinking emanated from its core thinking from the issue of race. Nazi ideology has effected many areas of German domestic and foreign policy.

Social Darwinism

Racial purity, survival of the fittest and the notion of struggle were crucial elements of Nazi thinking. According to the Nazis, social undesirables included the mentally ill, disabled people, homosexuals and gypsies. The Nazis viewed German society as contaminated by these undesirable elements which effected its social and racial purity. As a result sterilization, abortion and euthanasia policies were needed. Eugenics became central to the entire Nazi enterprise as it involved the biological improvement of the Aryan race and according to Alison Thompson 'The cleansing of inferior groups'

In July 1933 the Nazis implemented a program of compulsory sterilization of all those who were carriers of hereditary illnesses. In 1934, almost 90% of the 225,000 people were sterilized. To ensure that genetically unhealthy children were not produced there were restrictions placed on who could marry who

Anti-Semitism

The Nazi view was that the Jews were incapable of creating culture and they believed the Jews to be a parasitic, dangerous and destructive race. Jews were not considered to be German even if they had been born there and that they were the cause of all of society's ills which the Aryan race had to be shielded from

Lebensraum

Lebensraum translates into 'living space' which is an expansionist policy and the desire of the Nazis to acquire living space in eastern Europe. Hitlers motive was to reverse the treaty of Versailles, remilitarization and united all ethnic Germans into the Volksgemeinschaft thus Hitler was to expand into Czechoslovakia, Poland and Russia

Autarchy

Economic self-sufficiency – A notion that meant that Germany did not require outside assistance or resources in order to survive. The Nazi's strived to reach a state of economic self-sufficiency in a hope that more jobs for unemployed Germans would be created as they would look for resources and goods domestically rather than abroad.

Volkisch Nationalism

Another Important influence on the development of Nazi ideology was Volkisch nationalism. Hitler promoted the interests of the state over the interests of individuals. Hitler stated that 'It is necessary that the Individual should finally come to realize that his own ego is of no importance in comparison of the Nation. This thinking resulted in the Glorification of patriotic history and idolization of national heroic figures. The words 'volk' and 'volkisch' became connected with this national solidarity and the collective mission to reach this destiny. The formation of this new racially defined state, the Volksgemeinschaft (Everyone works together to make a racially pure state) was the core aspect of German nationalism

Fuhrer Prinzip

Nazism is a totalitarian Ideology and a key function of Nazi ideology was a strong leader who dominated the Nazi party. The Nazis aimed to implement a government system which exhibited extensive state control. The Fuhrer held all political authority and sovereignty having the power to make importance decisions for the people on their behalf. The Fuhrer Prinzip placed all authority in Hitlers hands nothing happened without his authority and this leadership principle called for the loyalty of the Nazi party members to Hitler. He was a supreme ruler in all areas of national life – political, cultural, religious and social. This lead to strict censorship of the media and other institutions, the management of education and the use of propaganda – all individuals were expected to conform to the ideology of the state

Joseph Goebbels

Goebbels' genius was showcased in his role as director of propaganda. His manipulation of the Potsdam ceremony where he chose Potsdam because of its deep association with German history was significant he was a genius as a propagandist as he understood human psychology and what worked as propaganda

Maintenance of Nazi Control

Terror

The Gestapo

The Gestapo was a secret police force that were influential in instilling terror in Germany hence maintaining Nazi power. They were created in April 1933 and their purpose was to protect the regime against its enemies. The Gestapo became a by-word of terror for cruelty and brutality it quickly gained a reputation for ruthlessness and efficiency while carrying out mass surveillance they spied on potential political opponents be reading mail and those who were accused were sent to concentration camps without trial. Communists and socialists were most obviously the political enemies however in the third Reich, Jews, Genova's witnesses, Romani (gypsy), homosexuals were also considered enemies of the people. Denunciations by the Gestapo were encouraged and would prove effective in creating an atmosphere of fear and distrust. Denunciations numbered in the thousands, with fewer than 10% of all cases examined by the Gestapo came from investigations they had initiated themselves. The motives for Denunciations were many, for some it was a genuine patriotic act, for some it might have been to prove ones loyalty to the regime and avoid the attention of the police and for others it was simply a way of settling a personal grievance. The overall effect of Himmler's efficient system was to atomize German society it became almost impossible to trust anyone – work colleagues, friends at school even family members. People came to believe that even a casual comment could lead to denunciation and arrest and thus Germans learnt to keep their views to their selves. This meant that any effective opposition to Nazi rule next to impossible. Richard Evans argues that public belief in the presence of terror and the fear off arrest was instrumental in maintaining control over the population. Richard Evans argues 'what counted was whether or not there were informers everywhere, but the fact that people thought there were'

Concentration Camps

They were first established to detain political opponents including socialists and communists, however they were expanded into a centralized system to remove further undesirables from threatening the state, therefore cementing Nazi rule. Concentration camps nevertheless will be forever be associated with the treatment of Jews.

Between 1934-1939, 200,000 people passed through the camps. Hitler made it clear from the start that the camps were to be organized on brutal lines to destroy all opposition and intimidate any potential dissent. The experiences of individuals detained were allowed to leak out into the public sphere and stories of brutality and horrific conditions added to the growing terror in society. This is highlighted by Geist who states that almost every family in Germany had received first-hand accounts of the brutalities inflicted in concentration camps. Hitler himself named concentration camps as 'an affective instrument which must remain ruthless'. Thus concentration camps were influential in deterring opponents to Nazism and fostering fear within the public

SS

The terror inspired by the SS who are also known as the brown shirts was greatly effective in controlling any remaining German opposition. They were led by Himmler who stated that 'the best political weapon is the weapon of terror'. Strict intellectual physical and racial requirement for membership ensured that the SS stood out as an ideal Aryan/German organization, a notion that was promoted in propaganda. Following the demise of the SA the SS took control of the concentration camps. During the 1930's the SS developed a reputation for their ruthlessness, they quickly silenced any opposition using extreme force and brutality with historian Shirer arguing that the SS under Himler was greatly feared.

Laws

Laws were an important way to exercise control in Nazi Germany. Laws were created and exercised by Hitler and his party, and they were constantly in line with the ideological beliefs of the Nazi party in particular anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and totalitarianism.

The legal changes that were introduced helped the Nazi party achieve the process of Gleichschaltung “bring into line all aspects of society so that they conform to the will of the Nazis.” It also helped eliminate political opposition and legalise the use of terror.

The Reichstag fire decree – this is also known as the emergency decree which was passed after the Reichstag fire on the 27th February 1933.

It played a pivotal role in Hitler’s consolidation of power. The decree placed restrictions on freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of association and the power of state authorities. It also provided for imprisonment without trial, phone tapping searches of homes and businesses and confiscation of property. This gave the Nazis enormous power to identify and eliminate political opponents e.g. communists.

The Reichstag fire decree successfully legalised the Nazi use of terror to consolidate their rule.

Enabling Act – passed in 1933

The Enabling Act effectively replaced Germany’s parliamentary democracy with the dictatorship, giving Hitler the power to make laws without the Reichstag.

The Enabling Act allowed the Nazi’s to put an end to any last remaining sources of political opposition.

It enabled Hitler and the Nazi party to slowly abolish the civil liberties of the German people, to suppress, dissent and to empower Nazi officials to eliminate political opposition using whatever means necessary without fear of reprimand.

It secured Hitler’s position of dictator in Germany. Historian Roland Stromberg summaries the effect of the enabling act stating that Hitler used his powers to mesmerise the German people into believing in his vision.

Aryan clause

Became law in April 1933 – led to the dismissal of Jewish civil servants, academics and teachers. Furthermore, the law against the overcrowding of German schools fixed a general limit of 1.5% of a schools population for Jews.

The Decree for the defence against malicious attacks against the government was signed in march 1933 and from this point onward any person found guilty of making or simply passing on a statement which might cause serious damage to the state and government could be given a prison sentence.

The Law for the reconstruction of the Reich in January 1934 abolished all German state governments, while the law against the establishment of parties make the Nazi party the only legal party in Germany

The Law for the restoration of the professional civil service legitimised the removal of those deemed unreliable from the civil administration

On the first of August 1934 the Law concerning the sovereign head of the German Reich combined the office of chancellor and president into the single office of the Fuhrer

Nuremberg laws

In 1935 the Nuremberg laws were passed during the Nuremberg rally and they were laws introduced to institutionalise the social Darwinist beliefs of the Nazis specifically anti-Semitism.

The Law for the protection of German blood and German honour banned marriages and extra marital intercourse between Jews and Germans. This distinction represented the idea that the Jews were not a religious or cultural group but a race of people and therefore no true German could be a Jew. ← Tries to create a racially pure society

It became illegal for a Jew to employ a German women younger than 45.

The Reich citizenship Law stripped those no longer considered German of their citizenship. There were 2 categories of Germans: Reich citizens – Aryans with full rights and nationals- those who were subject to the racial discrimination of Nazi policy.

No Jewish person was allowed to carry a German passport. Instead, they were required to carry identity cards with a large Red “J” stamp at the front. The Jews were considered subjects of the state and were considered a subgroup in society allowing the Nazis to deprive of them of basic rights and freedoms.

To be considered a Jew the Nazi’s required 3 Jewish grandparents. Those with 1-2 were marginalised as mix race.

After Nuremburg laws the SS would become the major agency dealing with the Jewish issue. Their policy was known as Entjudung. This legislation was designed to encourage the Jews to leave Germany by making life unpleasant for them e.g. forced to wear the star of David in public.

German harassment of Jews was encouraged and the intensification of laws against the Jews would lead to Kristallnacht in November 1938.

Racial Law

The Law for the prevention of offspring with hereditary diseases allowed for the compulsory sterilisation of those deemed hereditarily ill. 62,400 people were sterilised against their will in 1934

Nazi Propaganda was very successful as it was clear, direct and simple. Hitler suggested that it was important that propaganda accommodated itself to the comprehension of the least intelligent of those whom it seeks to reach. This was reiterated by Goebbels who stated 'the most brilliant propagandist technique is to use a few points and repeat them over and over'

During the rise to power, propaganda played an important part in mobilizing support for the Nazi party. In power its function changed, historian David Welch suggests that Nazi propaganda simply reinforced for Nazi voters the rightness of what they were doing. It was as much as about confirming as about converting public opinion. He also suggests that Nazi propaganda was not able to convert those who were adamantly anti-Nazi and at least assured passive support for the regime among non-Nazi Germans

Censorship was established with the editors law of October 1933, which also prevent Jews from being journalists

Newspapers

In 1933 Germany boasted more daily newspapers than the combined totals of Britain, France and Italy however as the party tightened its control over print media the number of publications declined. In 1933 approximately 10000 periodicals and journals were being printed annually. In 1939 the figure had reduced to 5000 and the Nazis controlled two-thirds of the media.

In April 1933 all journalists were required to be registered with the German press association

Radio

Goebbels understood the power of the Radio as it was regarded as an affective medium for easy communication and manipulation of the public opinion. The Nazi government established a program to make radios affordable and by 1939 over 70% of households had a radio – more than anywhere in the world. Radio programs glorified Hitler, spread Nazi Ideology and were also used as entertainment. Radios were only programmed to pick up local signals and by 1939 if a German was caught listening to international broadcasts, their offense could be punishable by death.