Gr 10 Biology Test

Cell Theory

  • All living things are made up of one or more cells

  • Cells are the basic unit of life

  • All cells came from pre-existing cells

2 Types of Cells

  • Prokaryotic

    • single celled organisms that don’t have a nucleus and no membrane bound organelles

  • Eukaryotic

    • single celled or multicellular organisms that contain a nucleus and many membrane bound organelles (plant and animal cells can be eukaryote)

Reproduction of Cells

  • asexual reproduction

    • reproduction only involving one parent, the offspring are exact genetic copies of the singular parent

  • sexual reproduction

    • reproduction involving two parents, the offspring has genes from each parent

Reasons for Cell Division

  • Growth: Allows organisms to increase in size and develop from a single cell into a complex multicellular organism.

  • Repair: Replaces damaged or dead cells, maintaining tissue function and integrity.

  • Asexual reproduction: Enables organisms to reproduce without a mate

Cell Cycle

  • Longest component of the cell cycle

  • Chromosomes are not clearly visible

G1 phase- The growth phase of the cell, centrioles also duplicate

S phase - DNA replicates

G2 phase- Preparations for Mitosis

  • Mitosis

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

  • Cytokinesis

  • Daughter cells are created

  • In plant cells, a cell plate develops which will become the new cell between daughter cells

 2. During which stage of the cell cycle does the replication of DNA take place? 

Mitosis

Phases of mitosis. 

Prophase:

- Nuclear membrane disappears 

- Chromosomes shorten and coil up so they become visible (like X's)


Metaphase: 

  • Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes

  • Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate


Anaphase: 

  • Spindles pull apart the double stranded chromosomes

  • Sister chromatids move to the opposite ends of the cell


Telophase: 

  • Single stranded chromosomes reach the opposite sides of the cell

  • Nuclear membrane becomes visible

  • Single stranded chromosomes uncoil to become thin chromatin


What structures are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during mitosis? 

Spindle fibers are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during mitosis

The difference between a chromosome and a chromatid

A chromosome is a single, elongated DNA strand that is tightly coiled and condensed, whereas a chromatid is one half of the duplicated chromosome that is joined at the centromere

Identify one major part of a plant where cells undergo frequent mitosis.

The roots, branches and leaves go through the process of mitosis frequently for the plant to grow larger in size and stronger in health.

Cell Parts

Cell Membrane

Regulates what moves into and out of the cell

In animal & plant cell

Cytoplasm

Suspends the organelles and supplies them with nutrients

In animal & plant cell


Mitochondrion

Produces energy for the cell through a Process

of cellular respiration

In animal & plant cell


Lysosome

Breaks down used and worn-out cell

components

Animal cell


Nucleus

Directs all cell activities

In animal & plant cell


Nucleolus

Manufactures ribosomes

In animal & plant cell


Nuclear Pore

Regulates what moves into and out of the nucleus

In animal & plant cell


Nuclear envelope

Separates the nuclear content from the cytoplasm

In animal & plant cell


Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Involved in Protein synthesis

In animal & plant cell


Ribosome

Sites of Protein synthesis

Plant cell


Golgi

Collect, Package and distribute molecules such

as Proteins that are made in the cell

Plant cell


Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Involved in the synthesis of lipids and

carbohydrates in the cell

In animal & plant cell


Peroxisome

Detoxify potentially harmful molecules in the cell

Animal cell


Secretory vesicle

Carries substances into and out of the cell

Animal cell


Centrioles

Produce spindle fibers that are used during cell division

Animal cell


Cell Wall

Provides structural support for the cell and protects it

Plant cell


Chloroplast

contains chlorophyll involved in photosynthesis

Plant cell


Central vacuole

Stores water, sugars and ions in the cell to

Keep the turgor pressure inside the cell

Plant cell


Vacuole

Stores water, waste and dissolved nutrients

Plant cell

Specialized Cells

  • Erythrocyte

    • Smooth so they can pass through blood vessels easily

    • Contains hemoglobin

    • Carries oxygen in blood

  • Skin cell

    • Scaley

    • layers are tightly together

    • protects the cells inside

    • reduces water loss

  • Bone cell

    • inside hard bone connect to other bone cells

    • collects calcium from food

    • allows growth

    • repairs bones

  • Muscle cell

    • arranged in bundles called muscle fibers

    • muscle cells contract and makes the fiber short, allowing the bones to move

  • has false feet

    • moves like an amoeba

    • less dense than eukaryotic cells

    • engulfs bacteria

    • fights infection

  • Sperm cell

    • head carries DNA

    • a tail (flagellum)

    • can move independently

    • carries male DNA to join with an egg cell

  • Fat cell

    • has a large vacuole

    • stores fat molecules

    • stores chemical energy

    • offers protection and insulation

  • Nerve cell

    • long, thin, and has lots of branches

    • has one super long branch

    • conducts electrical impulses to coordinate body activity

  • Xylem

    • transports water/dissolved minerals up the plant

    • larger openings than the phloem

    • dead cells


  • Phloem

    • Transports dissolved sugars, foods, and hormones down the plant

    • some hollow cells with sieve elements

    • alive cells

  • Storage cell

    • contains structures that are used for storage

    • stores starch

    • provides a source of energy to the plant

  • Photosynthetic cells

    • contains chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll

    • absorbs water from the soil

  • Guard cells

    • can change shape

    • controls water loss by opening & closing

    • allows gasses in and out of the leaf

    • Location and role of guard cells as well as their shape in various conditions such as a cool sunny day vs. hot sunny day 

Difference between benign and malignant tumors

  • benign

    • non-cancerous tumors that do not invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body.

  • malignant

    • cancerous tumors that can invade nearby tissues and have the potential to metastasize, spreading to distant organs.

Names/Parts of a Light microscope

  • Body tube

    • separates the objective lenses from the ocular lens, and assures continuous alignment of the lenses

  • Revolving nose piece

    • rotates the objective lenses

  • Low power objective lens

    • magnifies the specimen 4x

  • Medium power objective lens

    • magnifies the specimen 10x

  • High power

    • magnifies the specimen 40x

  • Stage clips

    • allows the slide to be held in place

  • Diaphragm

    • Controls the amount of light that is projected through the specimen

  • Light stage

    • Provides light for the microscope

  • Ocular lens

    • Magnifies the specimen 10x

  • Arm

    • Connects the lenses to the rest of the microscope

  • Stage

    • Serves as a platform for the microscope slide with the specimen

  • Coarse adjustment knob

    • Moves the stage up for down for quick focusing

  • Fine adjustment knob

    • Fine focuses the image when the specimen is viewed at higher magnifications

  • Base

    • Supports and stabilizes the microscope

  • Objective lens

    • gather light from the specimen, magnify the image of the specimen, and project the magnified image into the body tube

Cancer diagnosis tools

  • Pap test

    • taking a sample of cervical cells to see if they are growing abnormally

  • Endoscopy

    • Provides detailed images

      Cons

      ·Patient is put under sleep

  • MRI

    • Provides detailed photos

    • Can be used with enhancers to highlight areas of interest

    • Takes longer

    • Very loud

    • Not good for claustrophobic

    • Long wait times


  • X-rays

    • readily available

    • exposure to high radiation

    • good for hard tissues & a maximum limit for an x-ray is advised


  • Ct Scan

    • takes multiple photos in a quick timeframe

    • very detailed

    • enhancers can be used

    • very long wait times.

  • Ultrasound

    • uses soundwaves that are not detectable by

      human ear and is safe for babies

    • best for soft tissues

    • readily available

    • not very detailed


Cancer treatment options

  • only do it if the cancer is removable and it's placement

  • chemotherapy

    • a systemic approach can work when metastasis has happened, very therapy-targeted approach, tumour is attacked with high damage healthy cells, always results in burns

  • biophotonics

    • -uses light frequencies

  • alternative

    • different diet, supplements, or toxins

    • limits sugar and focuses on boosting the immune system

  • Immunotherapy

    • equips your immune system to detect small from your healthy cells.

Important terms

  • Osmosis

    • the movement of water across a membrane from a low solute concentration towards an area of high solute concentration

  • metastasis

    • the spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.

  • mutation

    • a change in the DNA sequence

  • carcinogen

    • an environmental factor that can lead to the growth of cancer (e.g) sun radiation, second hand smoking

  • Biopsy

    • the removal of a sample from the growing mass to be further tested by a lab

  • Cellular differentiation

    • the process of a cell becoming specialized to preform a specific function

  • Accessory organs

    • Organ systems that assist the main organs in the body, such as the liver and pancreas, which perform essential functions in digestion and metabolism.

  • Fiber

    • adds bulk in the colon and stimulates bowel movement

  • Nutrient

    • a chemical that an organism needs

    • must be taken in from its environment

    • used to build, repair tissues, regulate body processes and produce energy

  • Differentiation

    • The process by which a cell becomes specialized to perform a specific function

Stem cells

A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cells. The two different types of stems cells are:

  • Embryonic stem cells

    • can differentiate into any kind of cell

  • Tissue stem cells

    • can only form a certain type of cell, typically related to the tissue or organ they are came from.

Functions & Disorders of the

Digestive

Organ system made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, which work together to break down food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste.

  • Mouth

    • Function point of entry into the digestive track

  • Teeth

    • Tongue

    • further breaks down the food into smaller pieces

    • shapes the food into a 'bolus

    • mixes food with saliva

    • pushes food into the next segment of the digestive track

  • Salivary glands

    • secrete saliva

      • Saliva

      • helps to lubricate the food for easier passage through the digestive track

      • contains amylase (enzyme) which aids in the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates

  • Pharynx

    • passageway between the oral cavity and the esophagus

  • Epiglottis

    • Flap of tissue that covers the trachea when you swallow so food doesn’t go in

  • Esophagus

    • delivers food to the stomach by a series of muscular contractions known as PERISTALSIS

  • Stomach

    • holds food while it is being mixed with digestive juices secretes HCl(aq) and other digestive enzymes

    • mixes and grinds the food

  • Gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, which helps to digest and absorb fats

  • Liver

    • produces bile

    • processes nutrients absorbed by the small intestine

    • removes toxins

  • Pancreas

    • produces insulin, which helps in the uptake of sugars by cells

    • produces enzymes, which are sent into the small intestine for further

      breakdown of fats, proteins and carbohydrates

    • releases sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the stomach acid in the

      small intestine

  • Small intestine

    • breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from

      the liver

    • absorbs the nutrients into the blood stream

    Composed of 3 segments:

    • duodenum-shortest part where most chemical digestion occurs

    • jejunum- part where most absorption occurs

    • ileum-last part, also involved in absorption

  • Large Intestine

    • absorbs water and minerals from the stool

      contains E.coli, which produce Vitamin K

  • Rectum

    • holds stool prior to evacuation

      signals that there is stool to be evacuated\

  • Anus

    • point of solid waste exit

Disorders

  • Colitis

    • an inflammation of the inner lining of the colon caused by viruses/bacteria

  • Celiac disease

    • an autoimmune disease that leads to the small intestine due to the consumption of gluten

Cardiovascular

Made up from the heart, blood, and blood vessels, that transports nutrients, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hormones through the bloodstream.

Heart

  • Right side is deoxygenated blood

    • low in oxygen

    • high in carbon dioxide

  •   Left side is oxygenated blood

    • high in oxygen

    • low in carbon dioxide

  • May have a variable number of chambers (large openings) depending on the species

  • Fish have two chambers

  • Frogs have three chambers

  • Humans have four chambers

Open vs. Closed circulatory system

  • Open

    • Blood is pumped from the heart through blood vessels to a cavity which contains the organs. (organs are bathed in blood)

    • Lower blood pressure

    • In crayfish, or grasshoppers

  • Closed

    • Blood remains in blood vessels at all times

    • higher blood pressure

    • In fish, amphibians, and humans

Three types of blood vessels

  • Artery

    • Thick walled blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart

  • Vein

    • A blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart

  • Capillary

    • A tiny blood vessel that allows the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and the body tissues.

Blood

Has 4 major components:

  • Erythrocytes

    • Cells without a nucleus that carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body

  • Leukocytes

    • fights infections

  • Platelets

    • help blood clotting

  • Plasma

    • yellow tinted fluid that suspends other blood components

    • composed of water, but also contains proteins, hormones, nutrients, and other essential elements

Disorders/Diseases

  • Coronary Artery Disease

    • affects the main blood vessels that supply blood to the heart due to plaque build up (coronary arteries)

    • reduced blood flow to the heart muscle due to high build up of fats, cholesterol, in the artery wall.

Respiratory

Made up of the nose, mouth, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. provides oxygen and allows carbon dioxide to leave the body

Respiration in humans involves:

  1. The act of breathing

  2. External respiration using the lungs

  3. Internal respiration using body cells

  4. Cellular respiration through the mitochondria

  • EXTERNAL RESPIRATION: Gas exchange between the lungs and the circulatory system. at the level of the lungs

  • INTERNAL RESPIRATION: Gas exchange between the circulatory system and the cells of the body

  • CELLULAR RESPIRATION: Oxygen is used to generate energy for the cells from sugars. This part requires the mitochondria in cells. Carbon dioxide is Produced as a by- product

Breathing

The lungs are highly elastic and respond to the actions of the diaphragm and ribcage

  • Diaphragm

    • The wall of muscle that lies under the lungs

Ribcage

  • The bones and muscle which protect the heart and lungs

Components of the Respiratory system

  • Nasal Cavity

    • lined with a ciliated mucus membrane and filters, warms, and moistens incoming air

  • Pharynx

    • common passageway for the respiratory and the digestive systems

  • Trachea (windpipe)

    • Main airway in the human respiratory system

    • contains cartilage rings to keep it open

    • Lined with a ciliated mucous membrane to remove microscopic particles and sweeps them towards the pharynx

  • Larynx (voicebox)

    • when air passes over it, it vibrates

  • Epiglottis

    • Flap of tissue that covers the trachea when you swallow so food doesn’t go in

  • Bronchi (singular bronchus)

    • Two major subdivisions that branch off the trachea

    • Lined with ciliated mucous membranes

    • Ringed with cartilage

  • Bronchioles

    • smaller passageways that extend from each bronchus

    • Lined with ciliated mucous membranes

    • NOT ringed with cartilage

  • Alveoli

    • The air sac that is surrounded with capillaries for gas exchange


Disorders

  • Tuberculosis (TB)

    • An infectious disease passed by other people. Bacteria enters the body as it breathes and grows in the lungs and spreads to other parts of your body (nervous system/bones)

    • A chest x-ray can be used to diagnosis TB

  • SARS (serve acute respiratory system)

    • A diagnosis is made from the symptoms of SARS (flulike symptoms), a chest X-ray and a positive lab results of cell samples

  • Epiglottitis

    • Life threatening bacterial infection that causes inflammation and swelling of the epiglottis/surrounding throat tissues. Can block the trachea and shuts down organs

  • Pneumonia

    • serious lung infection that causes inflammation and fluid build-up in the alveoli

  • Bronchitis

    • a lung condition that inflames the bronchi, and the airways that carry air to and from the lungs

Skeletal/Musculoskeletal

Made up of bones and skeletal muscle, the system that supports the body, protects delicate organs, makes movement possible, anchors muscles, stores calcium and other minerals, and produces RBC’s and WBC’s in bone marrow. Connected by special tissue like tendons, cartilage, and ligaments.

Components

  • tendons

    • Strong, fibrous cords that attach muscles to bones, allowing for movement.

  • Ligaments

    • Elastic bands of tissue that connect bone to bone, providing stability and preventing excessive movement at joints.

  • Cartilage:

    • Strong, flexible tissue that acts as a cushion between bones at joints.

    • Reduces friction, absorbs shock, and helps facilitate smooth movement. 

Disorders

  • osteoporosis

    • The loss of bone tissue which makes bones more susceptible to factures, typical for older women.

Nervous

Nerves are bundles of neurons surrounded by connective tissue. The main cell of the Nervous system is the Neuron

The nervous system is split up in 2 branches

Central (CNS)

  • Includes the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral

  • Has nerves that carry signals between the CNS and body

Diseases and Disorders

  • Multiple sclerosis (MS)

    • The body destroys the myelin sheath on the neuron

  • Sciatica

    • Pressure on one of the largest nerves in the pelvis, creates severe pain down the leg & up the back

 Organ donors

  • Living donors

    • transporting body parts from an alive donor to another person

  • Deceased donors

    • transporting body parts from a dead donor to another person

  • Xenotransplantation

    • transporting body parts from one species to another

Risks/Benefits of organ donation

  • The immune system could attack the donated organ, rejecting the organ from its body or infection could happen.

    • The surgery is tasking on the body

    • No people volunteer to donate

    • The donor will lose an organ function

  • Organ donation can save lives

Plant parts

Key tissues in the plant

  • Dermal

    • The tissues covering the outer surface of the plant

      • includes the epidermis

      • controls interactions with the plants surroundings

      • prevents water loss

  • Ground

    • The filler between the dermal tissue and vascular tissue involved in photosynthesis

      • stores food

      • plays a role in regeneration

      • supports and protects the plant

  • Vascular

    • The tissues responsible for conducting materials within a plant

      • transports water and minerals

      • transports food and hormones

      • Composed of the xylem and phloem

Tissues working together in the Plant

  • Ground tissue

    • Palisade layer

      • a layer of closely packed cells carrying chloroplasts, protects the leaf and allows light to penetrate for photosynthesis. Located below the upper surface of the leaf

    • Spongy mesophyll

      • a region of loosely packed cells carrying chloroplasts, allows for gas exchange during photosynthesis. Located in the middle of the leaf

  • cuticle

    • a layer of wax on the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf that blocks the diffusion of water and gases

  • stomate

    • an opening in the surface of a leaf that allows the exchange of gases

  • Guard cell

    A pair of special cells in the epidermis that surround and control the opening and closing of each stomate

    • allows gasses in and out of the leaf

    • On a cool day the guard cell will close the stomata

    • On a hot day the guard cell will open the stomata


Plant growth

  • Apical meristem

    • undifferentiated cells at the tip of the plants roots and shoots; contains cells that divide allowing for the plant to grow loner and develop specialized tissue

  • Lateral meristem

    • undifferentiated cells under the bark in the stems and roots of woody plants, dividing and develop specialized tissues in the stem

  • Vegetative reproduction

    • a process where the plant produces genetical identical offspring from its roots or shoots

  • Sexual reproduction (from the flowers)