Limnetic zone ________- where sunlight does not penetrate to the bottom (horizontal) Epilimnion ________: warmest, highest dissolved oxygen. Hypolimnion ________: coldest, lowest dissolved oxygen (due to high biological oxygen demand (BOD) by decomposers) Lignin ________: fills in spaces in cell wall. Ecosystems ________ depend on the recycling of chemical elements. Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 granules applied to soils (explosive) Littoral zone from shore out toward center, as far out as sunlight penetrates to the bottom Euphotic zone where there is sunlight Aphotic zone where there is no sunlight Metalimnion rapid temperature change Hypolimnion coldest, lowest dissolved oxygen (due to high biological oxygen demand (BOD) by decomposers) Mississippi River 10th order Amazon River 12th order Straight stream order 1-3, small headwater streams Meandering stream order 4-6, mid-reach streams Braided stream order 7-12, large, low-gradient rivers Nitrogen fixation converts atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2): to ammonia or ammonium (NH3 or NH4) Nitrogen Fixation done by? Some bacteria and by lightning converting ammonia in turn, Ammonia can then also be converted to nitrite (NO2-), and nitrate (NO3-) which plants can use Phosphorus Cycle · No atmospheric pool · Most in mineral deposits and marine sediments o Much of this in forms not directly available to plants · Slowly released in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems via weathering of rocks · Usable form: dissolved inorganic phosphate Effects of Human Activities on Phosphorus Cycles · Remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizer · Reduce phosphorus in tropical soils by clearing forests · Add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff Only ______ nitrogen (ammonia; NH3) is usable by plant Fixed Decomposition takes place in steps Scavangers (ants, flies, vultures, hyenas)Bacteria, fungi Lentic waters are fromed by? Glacial, river, tectonic, and volcanic activity Changes that occur longitudinally Increase in size (width and depth)Increase in volume (as tributaries flow in)From steep gradient to low gradient (flatter land) Floodplain: flat land adjacent to a stream or river that experiences occasional or periodic flooding Flood magnitude: defined in terms of return period, or recurrence intervalE.g 100yr floodJust an average, based on historic dataCan have back-to-back 500yr floods

Arsenic ________ is toxic and is a carcinogen. Ogallala Aquifer The ________ is the worlds largest aquifer. Intertidal (littoral) zone between high and low tide; 2x/d Neritic zone between low tide and edege of continental shelf E.g. Kelp forestsE.g. Eelgrass bedsE.g. Coral reefs Oceanic zone beyond continental shelf (open ocean) E.g. Epipelagic plankton communitiesE.g. Hydrothermal ventsE.g. Deepwater coral communities Epipelagic Surface to 200m Bathypelagic 1000-4000m Abyssopelagic 4000-6000m Hadopelagic 6000m Pelagic open water Benthic Bottom Point source of contaminants can be trace it back to the end of a pipe, e.g., WWTP, Factories, power plants Non-point sources cant trace it back to a single pipe Emerging contaminants of concern Less visible, Subleathal effects such as an endocrine system disruption Weather refers to a local areas short trem physical conditions scuh as temaptrues arnd percipatiaon Climate refers to a regions average temperatures and percipaitaion over time Five Major Ocean Basins Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, Southern (Antarctic) Groundwater Some precipitation infiltrates the ground and is stored in soil and rock Surface water Water that does not infiltrate or evaporate runs off into bodies of water Biggest uses of water in U.S? Irrigation (70%)Industries (20%)Drinking (cities and residences) (10%)In general, ~70% of water we withdraw from rivers, lakes, and aquifers is not returned to these sources. What is a contaminant? Any substance that is present where it does not belong, or is present at levels that might cause harmful effects to humans or the environment Clean Water Act, 1972 Control of point sources PCB is a? Legacy contaminant (once used and banned but continues to linger in the environment) Emerging contaminants of concern: Less visible, Subleathal effects such as an endocrine system disruption Industrial point source example Factory discharging wastewater from a pipe into a body of water Municipal point source example City owned waste water treatment plant discharging wastewater into a body of water Agricultural non point source example Fields of crops that have run off of pesticides into a body of water Urban non point source example Contaminants running into storm drains in city areas into a body of water Conclaves paper results Breakdown rate: fastes for E. vernia (native)Also fast for EucalyptusSlowest for protuim (cerrado)Larger cuticleTannins Coloinization by fungiHighest for E.Vera and ProtiumLowest for Eucaluptus Colonilatization of invertebratesNo different in density, richness, or biomassIncreased w/ ergosterol (fungi) Definition of a Biome A large terrestrial region of Earth, the type of which is determined by the climate, and predominate vegetation type (grasses, shrubs, or trees) Key factors on determining climates Latitude (distance from equator)ElevationMountains and oceansOcean currentsGlobal air circulation (winds) Latitude on climate Because of its curvature, Earth receives an uneven distribution if solar energy Wind on determining climate Keeps tropics from being unbearably hot.Prevents rest of world from freezing Tropical Rain Forest General location: near the equator, in moist areas Climate: warm temp., high humidity, heavy rainfall (100’’ or more/yr), temp 68-93F Dominate vegetation Large treesNot dominated by a single tree speciesOften covered with vines, figs, and epiphytesTrees sometimes collapse under the weight of all life they support Five layers: Emergent, upper canopy, understory, shrub, and forest floor layers Filling diverse niches enables species to avoid or minimize competition and coexist Fire: not important for survival of the biome Plants and Animals: very high in species diversity and plants Soils: very poor, acidic, low organic matter, most nutrients tied up in trees, shollow roots,butress trunks Human Impacts: Removal of rain forest vegetation for agriculture and wood industry, huge loss of biodiversity Sumatran Organgutan Found only in tropical rainforests on island of Sumatra. Very few left. Burning forests to set up palm oil plantation Some countries do ecotourism and farm sustainable materials in the rain forests Tropical Savanna General location: Near equator, in dry areas Climate: Very warm temp year-round, Precipitation comes during rainy season (summer) 15-20 inches with monsoon (vs 4’’ in winter) Dominate Vegetation: Grasses (C4 grasses) with sattered drought resistant trees (e.g., baobab and acaci), Trees shed leaves during dry season Animals: Grazing animals concentrate at watering holes, herbivores: Zebras, gazelles, giraffes, predators: lions and hyenas Fires: Seasonal fires are important to biodiversity Soils: Generally poor, low nutrient, low fertility, dry, porous (drains rapidly) Human impacts: overhunting (including trophy hunting), overgrazing, fires (putting them out or starting), conversion to farm land Desert General location: Tropical, Temperate, and Polar regions Definition: Deserts are areas where evaporation exceeds precipitaion Climate: Very little precipitation (<10’’/year). Arid. Temperature may vary greatly, even between day and night Dominate Vegetation: Cacti, with some grasses and shrubs, adaptations allow them to stay cool, get h2O. Some have little or no vegetation Soils: Very poor soils, Low organic matter content. So hold little water/nutrients. May be salty which inhibits plant growth Animals and Plants Active at night (e.g., Kangaroo rats, Rattlesnakes)Able to travel long distances for waterThick, leathery leaves to reduce water loss; green trunks instead of leaves; spines to keep from being eaten; CAM Scorpion: Nocturnal, burrow by day, hard cuticle layer reduces water loss, 8-12 eyes, but see very little, see with their feet (pressure sensing organs) Human Impacts: Suburban sprawl, invasive species, orvergrazing, altercation of flow (CO River), mining (copper mining) Seeing more desertification with climate change (expansion of preexisting desert) Chaparral (Mediterranean) General location: Coastlines where cool water meets warm land mass, SoCal Climate: Mild (Mediterranean) Long, Warm, Dry summers, 10-40’’ of percipitaion Dominate vegetation: Shrubs. THickets of spiny, evergreen shrubs. Other common plants include yucca, poison oak, scrub oak, cacti, manzanita Animals: Common animals include Coyotes, mule deer, lizards, foxes, jack rabbits Soils: generally shallow, over fractured bedrock, low fertility, Fire: Fire is a normal component in this biome (germinating plants seeds), but has been suppressed, leading to bigger fires. Human Impacts: Encroachment, fire suppression, invasive species, grazing, agriculture Temperate Grassland (prarie) General location: temperate areas that are dry, but not too dry Climate: Extreme temperature differences (-30 to 80), 20-35’’ of rain/year. Too moist for dessert, too dry for forests Dominate Vegetation: Grasses. Also flowers, herbs, some scattered trees (e.g., oak), Limited precipitation, drought, and fire support grasses better than trees, two types of grasses; tallgrass (humid, wet), shortgrass (dry) Soils: Tallgrass is very fertile; organic matter accumulates (“bread basket”), shortgrass is thinner, drier soils Animals and Plants: Prairie dog, Milkweed, Badger, Purple coneflower, Big bluestem grass, Bald eagle Fire: Fire is an important part of theperate grassland ecology. Fire germinates the seeds. Keeps forests from growing. Part of prairie restoration projects Human impacts: Overgrazing, soil erosion/loss, pesticide contamination, Fires, Overhunting (e.g., buffalo), Native grasses replaced with monoculture/agriculture Temperate Deciduous Forests General location: Temperate (losses their leaves) areas that are moist Climate: Distinct seasons, Precipitation falls all year (30-60’’/yr), Extreme temp differences (-30 to 90) Dominate Vegetation: Trees. Lots of “understory” (herbs, shrubs), Trees survive winter by dropping leaves and becoming dormant. May have one or more dominant species (e.g, “oak-hickory forest”, “red maple forest”) Soils: Leaf fall produces nutrient-rich soil. Holds a lot of moisture Fire: not important Animals: White-tailed deer, squirrels, rabbits, opossums, raccoons, warblers, robins, etc. Human Impacts: logging, Urban sprawl, Agriculture, Acid rain Coniferous Forest (Boreal forest, taiga) General Location: Cooler, drier areas. Higher latitudes, altitudes Climate: Long, cold winters; short, cold summers. Temp range -40 to 70. 10 to 35’’ rain/year Fire: not important Dominate Vegetation: Trees, Evergreens (coniferous trees). Often have only a couple dominate species (e.g., “spruce-fir forest”) Soils: Soils are nutrient-poor somewhat acidic. Slower decomposition rate Bogs (like a sub habitat): wetland that accumulates peat. No streams coming in or out. Low nutrients. Carnivorous plants Animals: Life histories timed around harsh winters. E.g., Moose mate in fall; have young in spring. E.g., snowshoe hares switch to buds and needles in the winter Human Impacts: Logging. Introduced species (esp. Insects that kill trees). Air pollution