Untitled Flashcards Set

WEEK 6: Chinese Religious Confucianism and its Antecedents 

02/13

Foundations of Chinese Traditions

• Roots of Chinese religion go back far before the time of confucius, laozi, etc.

• China is one of the oldest continuous civilization in the world 

• Confucius, laozi et al did not establish totally new traditions 

• They reshaped and revitalized what had already been present on China for a long time 

Ancient rulers and worldviews

• Archep;pggical finds near beijing show evidence of human culture from about 500,000 years ago

• During this period, humans used fire, tools, hunted game, and had social structures

• Evident of agriculture, pottery, stone blade tools, domestic animals, etc. from neolithic period 

• Recent archeological finds at sanxingdui in sichuan challenge traditional narrative of chinese civilization originating in the yellow river basin

Yangshao Culture

• Prehistoric neolithic culture c. 5000-3000 BCE

• High developed crafts, dwellings, social structures 

• Burial site of “sha,am” with shell mosaics of a dragon and a tiger 

• Suggests special powers over spirits and nature 

• May have been a priest and or a ruler 

Huangdi: Yellow emperor

• Legendary sage-kings in the third millennium BCE

  • 3 Sovereigns

  • 5 emperors 

• Last sovereign was huangdi, the yellow emperor 

• Credited with inventing writing, music medicine, silk, weapons, etc 

• Symbolic  ancestor to all chinese people 

Emperor Yao, Shun, and Yu

• 3 legendary emperors viewed as founders of chinese civilization

• Emperor yao praised as exemplary sage-king in traditional histories, perfect moral character

• Appointed Shun as successor because of his perfect “filial piety” even though he was not his son 

• Shin appointed u the Great as his successor

Emperor Yu and Xia Dynasty

• Emperor yu credited with establishing 1st dyjsatsy- Xia dynasty by taming the yellow river 

• May be connected to the erlitou civilization in Shanxi Province 

• Bronze casting, silkworm cultivation, use of wheel, written language, irrigation, etc

• Likely ancestry  

• concern with fertility and spirit 

Shang dynasty

• History of chinese civilization begins during shang period 

• First course of written records]developments: ceramic, bronze, chariot, writing, architecture, feudal system, etc 

• Shang dynasty was a theocracy 

Ancestors and divination

• All natural forces were worshipped subordinate to the “high god” shangdi 

• Sjangdi only worshipped by kings

• Hierarchy in heaven is reflected on earth 

• Suhang rulers developed ancestor-nature worship and divination ritual 

Shang burial rites

• Burials for rulers were very elaborate

• Rulers were to become ancestors and continue to rule from the afterlife 

• Often buried with possessions, animals, sometimes even slaves and wives 

• Layer, figurines were substituted for slaves and wives 

Shang divination rituals

• Shang rulers consulted oracles and divination to learn the will of the ancestor and spirits 

• Concerned with things outside hunan control: weather, children, war, etc 

• Bones and shells heated in fire and then thrown into cold water (pyromancy) 

• King then read the cracks, which were answers to the questions inscribed on the bones

Zhou dynasty: ideal society

• Rebellion in 11th cent. BCE down shang dynasty

• Replace by the zhou dynasty

  • Western Zhou

  • Eastern zhou 

• Zhou perceived to eliminate the excess of shang rulers 

• Zhou becomes model for ideal society in popular imagination 

• Duke of zhou is an important figure–paragon of loyalty, virtue, and wisdom 

Mandate of heaven

• New religious idea, supreme god not just for ruling family

• New supreme god, now called heaven (tian), becomes the universal moral authority 

• Heaven gives it “mandate (tianming) to righteous rulers and states

• Emperor now known as the son of heaven (tianzi) 

Zhou Society and ceremony

• Zhou society hierarchally stratified 

• Proper reverential ceremonies used to express cosmic order

• Ceremonies connect to larger forces or higher powers (nature, ancestors) to ensure blessing 

• In early zhou, ceremonies done meticulously to ensure cosmic and social order 

2/18

Ancient Worldview

• The will of ancestors, spirits, and other impersonal forces important to Chinese people

• These forces are powerful and productive when in balance and harmony, but cause death and destruction when they are not

• Yin-Yang is one of the most important Chinese philosophical ideas

Yin-Yang

• All reality is made up of the interactions of 2 basic forces

  • Yin

    • The forces of darkness, femininity, coldness, wetness, and passivity

  • Yang

    • The forces of light, masculinity, heat, dryness, and activity

• Harmony of these two brings joy

• Disharmony brings pain

5 Elements

• Reality also operates through 5 elements(Wuxing)

  • Water

  • Fire

  • Wood

  • Metal

  • Earth

• These elements interact with each other and cause things to happen

Divination in the Yijing

• Early Chinese used bone and shell divination to deal with these forces

• In the Zhou period, divination used system of trigrams made up of broken and unbroken lines

• Each trigram represents a specific cosmic force

• Classic of changes was the main book of divination

Middle-Late Zhou Dynasty

• Power of Zhou Dynasty begins to wane c. 800 BCE

• Several independent “feudal” states emerge

• Struggles for 5 centuries

  • Spring and Autumn Period(770-481 BCE)

  • Warring States Period(481-221 BCE)

• Qin Dynasty emerges in 221 BCE

Warring States

• Poems of the era reflect suffering and disruption

• Questioning of Heaven’s benevolence

Classical Age

• Despite troubles, Middle and late Zhou period was a very creative age

• Developments in arts, agriculture, literature

• Schools set up to educate boys for government service

• Teaching connected to past traditions, but also concerned with the issues of the day

Life of Confucius

• Confucius(Kongfuzi) born into modest circumstances

• Not widely recognized in his own time

• Teachings carried on by his students

• His ideas were enshrined as the quintessential Chinese philosophy during the Han dynasty (c. 206 BCE to 220 CE}

• Born 551 BCE in Kingdom of Lu, Northeast China(Shandong Province)

• Confucius claims humble status, but may been from an aristocratic family

• Educated, knew music and archery, may have been self-taught

• Aspired to a career in government

• May have held minor posts as a clerk or administrator

• Confucius’ goals was to restore Chinese culture and religion back to ideal Zhou society

• Unable to gain a public position, he became a teacher

• Due to his own modest background, he never turned away students due to their wealth or status

• His students eventually gained

Confucian Teaching

• Confucian ideas not a break from traditional thought

• In his Analects(Iunyu), he calls himself a “transmitter who never invented anything”

• Basic problem is the breakdown of morality and values from the Zhou Era

• Rulers oppress the people, and the people respond with anger and violence

• Human beings have the capacity for goodness through self-cultivation

• One should study the traditions of the ancient sages for peace and prosperity

• Following their words and actions, one can become like them

• Thus, students should study classic literature

The Five Classics

• The heart of Confucian scriptures and education is the Five Classics

  • Classic of History(Shujing)

    • Collection of speeches from c. 6th cent. BCE

  • Classic of Poetry(Shijing)

    • Poems, folk songs

  • Classic of Changes(Yijing)

    • Book of Divination

  • Classic of Rites(Liji)

    • Ancient rites and court ceremonies

  • Spring and Autumn Annals(Chunqiu)

    • History of Lu Region

• Study of the classics provides a “humanistic” education-transforms ordinary individuals into “noble men”(Junzi)

Propriety, Filiality, Benevolence(Will be in the Exam)

• “Propriety”(Li) is a key principle in a sage’s way of life

• Originally used to refer to rites for gods and ancestors

• Confucius extends this term to apply in all aspects of life

• Heart of “propriety” is “filial piety”(xiao) directed towards parents and ancestors

• Acting with propriety(Li) externally, one cultivates “benevolence”(Ren) internally

• Propriety is to establish proper relations in family and society

The Five Relationships

• Father to Son

  • There should be kindness in the father and filial piety in the son

• Elder Brother to Younger Brother

  • There should be politeness in the elder brother and humility in the younger brother

• Husband to Wife

  • There should be righteous behavior in the husband and obedience in the wife

• Friend to Friend

  • There should be mutual respect and courtesy; the only non hierarchical relationship

• Ruler to Subject

  • There should be benevolence among rulers and loyalty among subjects

• From the Confucian perspective, one’s country is an extension of one’s family 

• The ruler is like a father; officials are like parents; common people are like children

• Filial piety)xiao) requires respect and obedience to elders and responsibility for raising youth

• Humans exist in a hierarchy of relationships patterned according to nature(=tan)

2/20

Five Relationships and Dao

• When relationships are harmonious, inner nature is harmonious

• Confucius promotes a way of life based on a sacred power called the “Way”(Dao)

• Confucius interested in the Dao of human life, not its religious aspects

Confucian Ideals

• Confucian Ideals taught in the Analects:

  • “Filial Piety”(Xiao)

  • “Genuine” or “Superior” human(Junzi)

  • “Ritual Propriety”(Li)

  • “Heaven”(Tian)

    • Moral force that governs the world

  • “Benevolence”(Ren)

    • To become a genuine person means to cultivate an inner state of care and genuineness

  • Five Social Relationships

  • “The Way”(Dao)

    • The way you would do something

    • The correct way to behave

    • The way things are

  • “Virtue” or “Power”(De)

    • The more virtue you do, overtime you gain the reputation of being a good person

    • Power through influence because you are virtuous

  • “Rightness”(Yi)

Disciples of Confucius

Mencius

• Mencius(Mengzi c. 372-289)-Most famous follower of Confucius

• Made advances in ideas of education, social policy, and benevolence

• Stated outright that human nature is good(Xingshan)

  • At the time, this statement was radical

  • So much war that human nature seemed corrupt

  • Argued that if any of us saw a baby about to fall into a well, anybody would save the baby, no matter how evil you are in any other aspect of life

• People need education to protect and cultivate innate goodness

• Without teachers, people lose their “child’s heart”

• Living properly means living in accord with the Dao

• Without education, misfortune will be one’s fate

• Established public education in China

Xunzi

• 200-238 BCE

• Born at the end of Mengzi’s lifetime

• Held opposite view to Mengzi

  • Human being are innately evil(Will be in Final)

• Babies are consumed with self-interest

• People need strict guidance

  • Must be forced into being civilized

Daoism

Laozi and Zhuangzi

Early Daoism

• Middle and late Zhou Dynasty saw many non-Confucian teachers who also proposed ways to organize society harmoniously

• Most important critique of Confucianism came from those who argued that humanity must synchronize itself to the “Dao” or the “Way”

• Early Daoist ideas were expressed roughly the same time as those of Confucius

Daodejing: “Way and its Power

• Main Daoist text is the Daodejing, the Classic of the Way and its Power

• Text combines “nature mysticism” and advice to rulers

• Attributed to “Laozi”(“old sage”), ca. 6th century BCE; Laozi can also be interpreted as “old baby”

  • Figment of our imagination

  • Composite of different sages

• “Laozi”

  • Many anonymous ancient masters

• Highly influential text

  • 81 chapters

  • 700+ commentaries

• Explains the nature of the Dao, which cannot be explained

• Dao is beyond words

  • Can only be experienced in silence

• The Dao is the source of creation

• Yin and Yang forces emerge from the Dao

• The Dao determined all things and flows as “energy” (De, of the universe)

• Dao is not a creator god

  • It has no will

  • Just a principles

• To experience the Dao, one must “let go” and “do nothing”(Wuwei)

• Do nothing(Wuwei) and nothing will be undone

  • Chapter from the text

Criticisms of Confucianism

• Daoist

  • Confucians harm society through excessive emphasis on rules and artificial practices that interfere with human nature

• Daoism’s political message

  • Return to simplicity, without state interference

• Human’s highest calling is not state service(as confucians argue), but retreat to the mountains for mystic communication with the Dao

• Know honor, yet keep humility.

  • Submit

  • Accept subordinate position!

• Be the Valley of the Universe.

  • Lowest parts of the Earth

• Being the valley of the Universe,

• Ever true and resourceful,

• Return to the state of the uncarved block(Pu).

  • Be your real self

WEEK 8 : xx

02/25

Zhuangzi

• The second great daoist text is the Zhuangzi, attributed to and named after a sage

• Lively parables and paradoxes 

• Explored the mysterious dao in everyday human experience 

Narrating himself

• Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself doing as he pleased. 

• He didn't know he was Zhuangzi

• Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi.

• Bur he didn’t know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi.

• Between Zhuangzi and a butterfly there must be some distinction!

• This is called the Transformation of Things 

• “How do I know that what I call “knowing” is not ignorance? How do I know what I call "ignorance" is not knowing?”

Religious Daoism: Two forms of Daoism (daojiao)

• “Philosophical” (daojia)

• “Religious” (daojiao)

• Religious daoism same origins as confucianism 

• Respects the state and confucius 

Religious daoism

• Religious daoists seek immortality 

• Some emulate sages known as the eight immortals 

• Spirit body, energy body, physical body

Paths to immortality

• Meditation (qigong) to increase life force (qi)

• Alchemy, mixing substances to make elixirs 

• Exercise and diet

• Contributed to science and medicine 

Philosophical daoism (daojia)

• Philosophical daoism comes from the daodejing and thinkers such as zhuangzi 

• Humans are connected in a web of dynamic forces

• Yin and yang are a way to understand this connection

• Power (de) is perceived though yin and yang

Movement of the dao

• The classic of changes (yijing) describes the movement of the dao

• Uses trigrams to show combinations of yin and yang

• Divination about any situation based on this principle 

Daoist Landscape painting

• Landscape paintings from the song dynasty (960-1269 CE) convey harmony of nature and humanity

• Pursuit of simplicity nature for spiritual growth and benefit to society 

• A natural person who avoids unnecessary action (wuwei) finds truth

Dao

• Dao means “way” as in a path or a method

• The dao cannot be described “the dao that can be expressed is not the eternal dao” “one who knows does not speak; one who speaks does not  know”

• Dao is not a God, but is still numinous, ineffable, and the origin of everything 

• “Dao produces the one; the one gives birth to two; two produces three. Three produces myriad creatures. The myriad creatures shoulder yin and hold onto yang. By blending these qi, they attain harmony.”

• Dao fices ruse to all things, but has no intention or will

• The Dao

There is a thing confusedly formed

Born before heaven and earth

Silent and void

It stands alone and does not change

Goes around and around and does not weary

It is capable of being the mother of the world

I do not know its name, 

So I style it, “the way”

• The Dao

When the great Dao is abandoned, benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi) appear. 

When wisdom and erudition arise, great hypocrisy arises.

When the six relationships (between persons) are out of harmony, then you have filiality (xiao) and kindness.

When the state is in chaos, “loyal ministers” appear on the scene.

• The dao

This passage criticizes the confucian ideals of benevolence (ren) and filial piety(xiao)

Abandoning the dao leads to distinctions 

De

• Chinese term de refers to excellence, virtue, power, energy, or charismatic force. 

• To act with no expectation or reward; to lead without lording it over others; such is the mysterious de”

• If one moves in harmony with the dao, one will achieve de

• De expressed as power, wisdom, moral bearing, and confidence.

• Arises from the experience from dao

Wuwei

• De is not shown through striving, planning, or training

• Exhibited as a sort of effortlessness (wuwei)

• “People who possess the highest de do not strive for de, and so they have it”

• Wuwei translated as inaction, but daodejing clearly states that one should be active

Silk road

• Ca. 1st-6th centuries, travelers went overland from NW India for trade, diplomacy, pilgrimage 

• Traveled through pakistan, afghanstan, central asia

• Traveled through hindu kush mountains

• Arrived in kashgar in ,modern xinjiang province

Dunhuang

• Oasis town in modern gansu province

• Important buddhist center 

• Many caves and grottoes for monks’ residence

• Center for buddhist art 

WEEK 8 : Mahayana and the chinese world 

02/27

Mahayana and the chinese world 

• All forms of buddhism were transmitted to china as they existed in india at the time

• Flexibility of mahayana led to its success in china 

• Mahayana cosmic teachings similar to chinese universalism 

• Appealed equal to commoners and intellectuals 

Daoist Influences

• All mahayana buddhism in china has  a large daoist streak

• Daoism aided the transplantation of mahayana into chinese culture 

• The dao (“way”) resembles buddhist doctrines of emptiness and buddha nature

• The term “nature”, “mind”, “dharma” are almost always translate as “dao” on chinese buddhist texts

• Blended well with daoist focus on meditation and physical discipline 

Sinification of buddhism

• 1st and 5th centuries, buddhism gradually integrates with chinese culture 

• Schools of chinese buddhism emerge 

• Earlier schools based on indian texts such as vinaya (lu), madhyamaka (sanlun), mantra (zhenyan), abhidharma (kosa), Yogacara (faxiang), etc.

• Later schools such as huayan, tiantai, chan, pure land display uniquely chinese character 

3 Vinegar Tasters

Salvation by buddha

• The lotus sutra

Lotus school: tianai buddhism

• Named after tiantai mountain, heavenly terrace, in zhejiang province

• Founder zhiyi 538-597 C.E.

• Lotus sutra (sutra of the lotus of the wonderful law)

Lotus sutra in china

• First chinese translation 286 C.E.

• Lotus sutra related miracle tales started to appear in the 4th century 

• People invoked name of bodhisattva guanyin or “goddess of mercy”

Lotus sutra teachings

• All beings can attain buddhahood following the “one vehicle” (eka-yana) or “buddha vehicle” (buddha-yana) 

• Even devadatta (sakyamuni’s evil cousin) can become a buddha

• Even the eight year old can become buddha 

Expedient means

• Skillful means (fangbian, upaya) are techniques that buddhas use to teach 

• Ultimate goal is to become buddha 

• Parables like the burning house and impoverished son 

Lotus sutra teachings

• Burning house= samsara 

• Playing, distracted children=sentient beings

• father=buddha

• 3  carts= 3 vehicles 

• Bull cart= one vehicle (eka-yana) 

Lotus sutra teachings

• Buddha is eternal (did not attain enlightenment or die in northern india)

• His attainment and parinirvana were only expedient means 

• Attained enlightenment in infinite past

• The buddha is always in the world preaching the dharma 

Pure land buddhism

Cosmic buddhas

• Mahayana cosmology is new

• New landscape of enlightenment, new buddhas and bodhisattvas 

• The path is no longer confined to one’s own abilities or this world as the means or arena of practice 

• Through faith in cosmic buddhas, combined with a moral life, one is born in a “pure land” or “buddha land” that is beyond samsara  

Multiple worlds

• Early buddhism taught only one world system

• later , this expanded to billions of worlds, each with its own heaven, hells, etc

• Some (but not all) of these worlds were “buddha lands” where buddhas live and teach

• Similar to god realms, but outside samsara 

• Emerging forms of buddhism focused on birth in these buddha lands 

WEEK 9 : Pure Land Buddhism

03/04

Cosmic buddhas

• Mahayana cosmology is new

• new landscape of enlightenment, new buddhas and bodhisattvas 

• The “path” no longer confined to one’s own abilities or this world as the means or arena of practice 

• Through faith is cosmic buddhas combined with a moral life, ones born in a “pure land”, or “buddha land” that is beyond samsara. 

Multiple worlds 

• Early buddhism taught only one world system

• Later, this expanded to billions of worlds, each with its own heaven, hells, etc

• Some (but not all) of these worlds were “buddha lands” where buddhas live and teach

• Similar to god realms, but outside of samsara

• Emerging forms of buddhism focused on birth in these buddha lands

Buddha lands

• Birth in pure lands, not based on traditional means (meditation, wisdom, morality), but on faith, worship and calling the buddhas name.

• Buddha lands filled with jewels, jewel-trees, music, sweet scents, lights, colors, sounds of teachings, etc. 

• Drama of liberation no longer confined to a single realm

• Possible to be helped by buddhas and bodhisattvas 

Amitabha and pure lands

• Among thew new cosmic buddhas was amitabha–buddha of infinite light 

• Also called amitayus–buddha of infinite life

• Became the most popular cosmic buddha among developing mahayana cults

Dharmakara’s vow 

• Eons ago, a monk named dharmakara vowed to establish a “pure land”.

• Meditated for five eons to establish a pure land called sukhavati (“blissful”)

• No lower rebirths and everyone will become either an arhat or a bodhisattva 

• Lifespans are unlimited, no negative karma, perpetual teachings 

• Dharmakara vows that any being who sincerely wishes to be born in his pure land will do so if:

1. They meditate on it ten times 

2. They desire enlightenment and vow to be a reborn there 

3. They meditate on the pure land, practice virtue, and dedicate their merit 

Faith vs works 

• New idea that one can be saved by faith alone

• Pure land sutra states there must be both faith and works

• Pure land not gained through mere faith or amitabha’s grace alone–one mist make some effort

• However, requirements for such attainments relaxed considerably from early buddhism

• For example, no discussion of wisdom (prajna)

Pure land (jingtu) Buddhism

• Pure land buddhism more popular in east asia than india

• Formal school in china for a brief time

• Long career as a popular movement in china and east asia

• 6th cent. Teachers advocated use of “incantations” (dharani) 

• Pure land adopts practice of nianfo, “recollecting” the buddha 

• nianfo= chanting the name of amitabha buddha (namo amitoufo) 

Self power (zili) vs other power (tali) 

• Rebirth in pure land from amitabha’s grace-not one’s own efforts

• Faith and recitation of amitabha’s name, nianfo, are means for salvation–not meditation

• Inclusion of sinners and reliance on amitabha’s grace are chinese innovations 

• Even those who have committed heinous crimes possess “buddha-nature” 

• Chinese believed they were living in the “age of degenerate dharma” (mofa)

• Easy and effective practices such as nianfo thought to be appropriate for the times

WEEK 10:  Rise of japanese buddhism

03/11

Impact of China

• 5th and 6th cent chinese and korean civilization and buddhism arrive in japan

• Shinto created to distinguish native Japanese culture from new alien forms 

• Introduction of chinese script and buddhist images

• Educated classes start to use chinese for historical and official records, and poetry 

• Japanese accept written script but not spoken language 

Impact of china 

• Adoption of technologies such as metal working, wood carving, farming, architecture, road and bridge building, etc 

• Through chinese texts, japanese become familiar with key concepts:

  • daoism

  • Yin and yang

  • 5 elements 

  • Confucian ethics, social and political theories, law, education 

Impact of buddhism

• Introduction of buddhist art has a major impact 

• No prior artistic images of kami in japan 

• Images of the buddha were controversial 

• Anti-buddhist faction argued that foreign kami would offend native kami

• Prince shotoku and powerful soga clan built temple to enshrine buddhist images 

• Thanks to the soga clan, other families accept buddhism 

• Buddhist statues thought to have magical properties 

• Buddhas and bodhisattvas considered to be a new kind of kami 

Buddhism in nara and heian periods

• Buddhism flourishes during nara (710-784) and heian 794-1185

• Japanese monks travel to china to study

• Tendia and shingon schools established 

• Madhyamaka, mind only, vinaya, avatamsaka schools formed 

• Temple and shrines in almost every prominence 

Nara and heian buddhism: shingon

• Kukai aka kobo daishi founds school of esoteric buddhism 

• Called shingon (“true word”)

• Emphasizes practices such as mantra recitation, visualization, ritual 

Nara and heian buddhism: tendai 

• Saicho founds tendai school

• Many zen and esoteric influences 

• Emphasizes doctrin of original enlightenment–hongaku 

Kamakura buddhism

• In the kamakura period, several new schools of buddhism emerged:

  • Pure land

  • Nichiren

  • zen

Pure land buddhism

• Honene founds pure land jodo school

• Former tendai monk

• Teaches that only chanting the name of amida buddha leads to salvation

• Emphasizes the concept of “end times” (mappo)

Nichiren buddhism

• Nicheren founds the nichiren school based on the lotus sutra

• Former tendai monk

• Promotes chanting and venerating the title of lotus sutra

• Calls for establishing a buddhocracy 

Here are the definitions for each of the terms you've provided:

Buddhism

• Buddhism: A religion and philosophy based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) that seeks to understand the nature of suffering and the path to enlightenment.

• Theravada: The oldest surviving school of Buddhism, prevalent in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, focusing on individual enlightenment.

• Pure Land: A branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on devotion to Amitabha Buddha to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land, a paradise that facilitates enlightenment.

• Chan/Zen: Schools of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing meditation as the way to achieve enlightenment, with Zen being the Japanese counterpart of Chan.

• Lotus Sutra: A key Mahayana Buddhist text that teaches the universality of Buddha-nature and the concept of skillful means in teaching.

• Hinayana: An earlier term (often considered pejorative) referring to the more conservative early Buddhist schools, now more commonly referred to as Theravada.

• Mahayana: A major branch of Buddhism that emphasizes the bodhisattva path and universal salvation.

• jingtu/jodo: Chinese/Japanese term for "Pure Land," focusing on Amitabha Buddha's paradise.

• Tiantai (Tendai): A school of Chinese Buddhism emphasizing the Lotus Sutra and integrating various practices and teachings.

• Amitabha/Amituofo/Amida: Titles of the Buddha of Infinite Light in Pure Land Buddhism, associated with salvation and rebirth in the Pure Land.

• Buddha-nature: The inherent potential of all beings to attain Buddhahood.

• Nichiren: A Japanese Buddhist teacher who founded the Nichiren school, emphasizing the Lotus Sutra and chanting.

• Zhiyi: The founder of the Tiantai school of Chinese Buddhism, known for his teachings on the Lotus Sutra.

• Zazen/zuochan: A form of seated meditation practiced in Zen Buddhism.

• Dogen: A Japanese Zen master who founded the Soto school, emphasized practice and meditation.

• nianfo/nembutsu: Practices in Pure Land Buddhism involving chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha, emphasizing devotion.

• Guanyin/Kannon: Bodhisattva of compassion, revered in both Chinese (Guanyin) and Japanese (Kannon) traditions.

• mofa/mappo: Terms referring to the "degenerate age" in Buddhist history, when the Dharma is believed to be less effective.

• Mahakashyapa: An early follower of the Buddha, traditionally regarded as the first patriarch of Zen Buddhism.

• Dharmakara: A monk who made vows to create the Pure Land, becoming Amitabha Buddha.

• Bodhidharma: The legendary monk credited with bringing Chan Buddhism to China.

• “one vehicle” (eka-yana): The teaching that all paths lead to Buddhahood as one ultimate vehicle.

• Buddha-vehicle (Buddhayana): A term referring to the path leading to Buddhahood.

• Saicho: The founder of the Tendai school in Japan.

• Dhyana: A meditation practice in Buddhism that leads to heightened states of awareness.

• Parable of the “Burning House”: A teaching in the Lotus Sutra illustrating the use of skillful means to guide others to enlightenment.

• “other-power”: The belief in relying on the grace and assistance of Amitabha Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism.

• “Self-power”: The effort and cultivation of one's abilities and merits to achieve enlightenment.

• Bodhisattva: A being who seeks enlightenment not only for themselves but also for the sake of all sentient beings.

• Flower Sermon: A teaching of the Buddha where he held up a flower in silence, transmitted the essence of Dharma to Mahakashyapa.

• Platform Sutra: A key text in Chan Buddhism, attributed to Huineng, emphasizing sudden enlightenment.

• Huineng: The sixth patriarch of Zen Buddhism, known for advocating sudden enlightenment and emphasizing direct experience.

• Dogen: Mentioned previously, founder of Soto Zen known for his writings on practice and existence.

• Linji: A significant figure in Chan Buddhism, known for his straightforward and often abrupt teaching style.

• kōan: A paradoxical statement or question used in Zen practice to provoke deeper thought.

• Dunhuang: An oasis town in China known for its Buddhist art and manuscripts in the caves of Magao.

• Honen: The founder of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, emphasizing the chanting of Amitabha's name as a means to achieve rebirth.

• Skillful Means (fangbian, upāya): The various methods used by Buddhas and bodhisattvas to teach and guide others toward enlightenment.

Confucianism

• benevolence (humaneness): The quality of being kind and compassionate, central to Confucian ethics.

• propriety: The correct or appropriate conduct in various social situations, emphasized by Confucius.

• filial piety: A virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors.

• junzi (“superior person”): An ideal moral and ethical person in Confucianism, often translated as "gentleman" or "noble person."

• yin-yang: A concept of dualism in Chinese philosophy, describing how seemingly opposite forces are interconnected.

• Kongfuzi/Confucius: The Latinized name of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher whose ideas form the basis of Confucianism.

• Mengzi/Mencius: A Confucian philosopher who expanded on Confucius's teachings, emphasizing inherent human goodness.

• Xunzi: A Confucian scholar who argued that human nature is inherently self-interested and requires cultivation.

• ren: The Confucian virtue of humaneness or benevolence, central to moral behavior.

• xiao: Filial piety; a fundamental virtue emphasizing respect and duty to one's family.

• li: Proper conduct, ritual, and propriety in social and familial relationships in Confucianism.

• “mandate of heaven”: The divine right to rule, granting authority to a ruler only if they govern justly.

• tian: The concept of heaven in Chinese cosmology, often associated with moral authority.

• tianming: The destiny or mandate received from heaven, guiding the actions of rulers.

• tianzi: The title of the emperor, meaning "son of heaven."

• rites: Ritual practices in Confucianism that structure social interactions and affirm harmony.

• Yijing (Classic of Changes): An ancient Chinese divination text and philosophical work, foundational to Confucian thought.

• Warring States Period: An era in Chinese history (475–221 BCE) characterized by fragmentation and philosophical development.

• Zhou Dynasty: A historical dynasty (c. 1046-256 BCE) in China known for establishing the foundations of Chinese culture.

• Lunyu (Analects): A collection of sayings and teachings attributed to Confucius, compiled by his disciples.

• “Five Classics”: A set of ancient Chinese texts that form the foundation of Confucian studies.

• “Five Relationships”: The key relationships in Confucianism that dictate moral behavior: ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, friend-friend.

• dao: The way or path, significant in both Confucianism and Daoism.

• divination: The practice of seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown through various means, such as oracle bones.

• oracle bones: Ancient Chinese practice of divination using animal bones or shells, often inscribed with questions.

• Shang Dynasty: An early Chinese dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) known for its advancements in writing and bronze work.

• Duke of Zhou: A key historical figure in the Zhou dynasty, regarded as a symbol of loyalty and good governance.

Daoism

• Laozi: The legendary figure attributed to the founding of Daoism, traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing.

• dao: The fundamental principle in Daoism, meaning "the way" of the universe.

• wu-wei: The Daoist principle of "non-action" or effortless action that is in harmony with the Dao.

• Huang-Lao: An early school of Daoism combining ideas from Laozi and Huangdi, focused on the Dao and governance.

• Zhuangzi: A foundational text in Daoism attributed to the sage Zhuangzi, filled with parables.

• de: In Daoism, it refers to virtue, power, or moral character derived from the Dao.

• Philosophical Daoism: A strand of Daoism focused on philosophical ideas and the nature of the Dao.

• Zhuangzi (text): A classic text offering insights into Daoist philosophy through stories and anecdotes.

• qi (ch'i): The vital life force or energy present in all living things, central to Chinese health practices.

• Religious Daoism: A branch of Daoism that includes organized religious practices, rituals, and belief in immortality.

• Laozi (text): A foundational text of Daoism, the Daodejing, attributed to Laozi, outlining the nature of the Dao.

Shinto

• Amaterasu: The sun goddess in Shinto, considered the most important deity in Japanese mythology.

• kami: Spirits or deities revered in Shinto, often associated with natural elements.

• Kagutsuchi: The god of fire in Shinto mythology, born from the union of Izanagi and Izanami.

• Yayoi Period: An era in Japanese history (300 BCE–300 CE) marked by the introduction of rice cultivation and metal tools.

• Kojiki: An ancient Japanese chronicle that records the myths and history of Japan.

• Izanagi: A deity in Shinto credited with the creation of Japan and its gods, alongside his partner Izanami.

• Yamato: The name of the dynasty that rules Japan, often associated with the unification of Japan.

• Kofun Period: A time in Japanese history (250–538 CE) marked by large burial mounds and the rise of powerful clans.

• Nihongi: An early Japanese historical text that serves as a companion to the Kojiki.

• Izanami: The goddess of creation and death in Shinto, the partner of Izanagi.

• Jomon Period: The earliest known period of Japan (14,000–300 BCE) characterized by a hunter-gatherer culture with distinctive pottery.