history

1. Pre-Contact North American Native Societies

• Key Characteristics:

  • Varied environmental adaptations (e.g., desert, forest, plains).

  • Use of natural resources for food, shelter, and tools.

  • Diverse languages and cultural practices.

  • Examples:

    • Anasazi (Pueblo): Cliff dwellings, agriculture in arid conditions.

    • Mississippian: Mound-building, trade networks.

2. Olmec and Mayan Civilizations

• Olmec (1500–400 BCE):

  • Known as the "Mother Culture" of Mesoamerica.

  • Achievements: Colossal stone heads, early writing system, calendar development.

  • Economy: Agricultural surplus, trade of jade and obsidian.

  • Religion: Polytheistic, worship of jaguar deities.

• Mayan (2000 BCE–1500 CE):

  • City-states like Tikal and Chichen Itza.

  • Achievements: Advanced mathematics, astronomy, complex writing system.

  • Economy: Trade, agriculture (maize, beans, cacao).

  • Religion: Rituals, pyramids as temples.

3. Features of Early Civilizations

• 8 Features of Civilization:

  1. Cities

  2. Government

  3. Religion

  4. Social structure

  5. Writing

  6. Art and architecture

  7. Job specialization

  8. Public works

• Examples:

  • Egypt: Pharaohs, pyramids, hieroglyphics.

  • Mesopotamia (Kush): Ziggurats, Hammurabi’s Code, cuneiform.

4. Legacy of Greek Thought, Culture, and Government

• Contributions:

  • Philosophy: Socratic method, works of Plato and Aristotle.

  • Government: Foundation of democracy (Athens).

  • Science and Medicine: Hippocratic Oath, Euclidean geometry.

  • Arts: Classical architecture (columns), drama (tragedy and comedy).

5. Large Regional Empires in Mesopotamia and Anatolia

• Hittites (1600–1180 BCE):

  • Ironworking technology.

  • Military innovations (chariots).

• Assyrians (900–609 BCE):

  • Strong military, use of siege tactics.

  • Library of Ashurbanipal.

• Babylon (1894–539 BCE):

  • Hammurabi’s Code: Early law system.

  • Hanging Gardens (one of the Seven Wonders).

• Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE):

  • Cyrus the Great: Tolerance of cultures.

  • Darius: Royal Road, efficient administration.

6. Longevity of the Byzantine Empire

• Factors for Survival:

  • Strategic location: Constantinople as a trade hub.

  • Strong military: Use of Greek fire.

  • Cultural cohesion: Orthodox Christianity.

  • Legal and administrative systems: Justinian’s Code.

7. Cultural Characteristics and Contributions of Islamic Civilization

• Key Characteristics:

  • Golden Age (8th–13th centuries): Advances in science, mathematics, medicine.

  • Contributions:

    • Algebra and Arabic numerals.

    • Preservation of Greek and Roman texts.

    • Architectural achievements: Mosques (e.g., Dome of the Rock).

    • Literature: Works like The Thousand and One Nights.

  • Trade networks connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe.