Biological Perspective and Classical Conditioning - Key Vocabulary

Classical Conditioning and Early Behaviorism

• The lecture marks a shift from the biological perspective to behaviorism, emphasizing nurture (observable behavior) over inner mental states.
• Behavioral approach focuses on learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.
• Behaviorists prioritize observable behavior and measurable outcomes rather than introspection or hidden mental processes.
• Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Bandura are foundational figures mentioned for the upcoming topics (Operant Conditioning, Social Learning) and historical context.

Key Concepts and Terminology (Classical Conditioning)

• Stimulus: anything that stimulates or encourages a reaction. Example: a bell signaling food.
• Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that initially does not elicit the target response. Example: a bell before conditioning.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning. Example: food.
• Unconditioned response (UR): the natural, unlearned reaction to the US. Example: salivation to food.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, begins to elicit a response. Example: the bell after conditioning.
• Conditioned response (CR): the learned response to the CS. Example: salivation to the bell.
• Acquisition: the initial learning phase where NS is repeatedly paired with US to produce a CR.
• Conditioning sequence in simple form: Before conditioning, NS does not provoke UR. During conditioning, NS + US → UR. After conditioning, CS → CR.
• Relation among terms (summary): NS
  ightarrow ext{no response} \ US
  ightarrow UR \ NS + US
  ightarrow UR \ CS
  ightarrow CR whereNS
  ightarrow CS \ UR
  ightarrow CR after learning.

Pavlov: Classical Conditioning (Foundational Case)

• Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist, not originally a psychologist; he studied the digestive system in dogs.
• He measured saliva as dogs received food.
• Initially, the dog’s natural response to food is digestion-related salivation (UR) when food is present (US).
• Pavlov introduced a bell, which initially is a neutral stimulus (NS) with no salivation response.
• After repeated pairings of the bell (NS) with the food (US), the dogs began to salivate at the bell alone (CS) without food being present (CR).
• The bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS); the drool in response to the bell becomes the conditioned response (CR).
• Visual cue in class: a humorous slide with forgettable visuals (peanuts with Snoopy ears) illustrating natural and conditioned associations.
• Important historical note: Pavlov’s work laid the groundwork for rigorous behavioral experiments that influenced later psychology.

The Office Altoids Clip: A Concrete Example of CS and CR

• A clip from The Office is used to illustrate the sequence: a neutral stimulus (sound) paired with a reward (Altoids).
• After pairing, the sound becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that triggers the conditioned response (CR) of reaching for an Altoid.
• The original experiment demonstrates how a seemingly neutral cue can come to predict a reward and elicit a learned behavior.
• The discussion highlights practical interpretation, such as recognizing which element was the NS, which became CS, and what the CR was in this scenario.

Watson and Little Albert: Conditioning Fear (Ethical and Historical Context)

• John B. Watson is presented as the father of American behaviorism and a key figure in establishing behavioral psychology.
• Little Albert case (a child used to study conditioned fear): Watson and colleagues paired a furry animal with a loud noise (an iron hammer striking metal behind the child).
• Initially, Albert showed curiosity toward furry animals (NS) and did not fear them.
• The loud noise (US) naturally elicited fear (UR).
• After repeated pairings, the furry animals (e.g., white rats) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited fear (CR) without the loud noise.
• The fear generalized to other furry objects beyond the rat (e.g., dogs, monkeys) due to stimulus generalization.
• Ethical concerns: this early work is widely criticized for harm to a child; today such experiments are regulated, especially involving minors. The instructor notes that this kind of study would not be allowed today and emphasizes the importance of ethical safeguards and regulations in modern psychology.
• The long-term aim discussed was to see if phobias could be reversed through methods like exposure therapy, though this was not fully realized in the Albert case and is only discussed conceptually.
• The “Little Albert” episode is used to illustrate how specific fears may be conditioned and how exposure-based approaches could potentially desensitize a fear—though not via the exact historical methods.

Ethical, Historical, and Practical Implications

• Early behaviorism relied on aggressive experimentation to demonstrate learning principles, but many of these methods are now considered unethical, especially with children.
• The Little Albert study underscores the evolution of ethics in research, including informed consent, protection from harm, and the limits of using fear- and pain-inducing stimuli.
• There is ongoing debate about the balance between knowledge gained and ethical cost; modern psychology prioritizes participant safety and rights.
• In contemporary practice, exposure therapy (a real-world application linked to conditioned fear) is used to treat phobias by gradually and safely exposing individuals to fear-inducing stimuli to reduce the conditioned response over time.

Connections to Broader Topics and Real-World Relevance

• The biological perspective and behaviorism are presented as complementary: biology can influence behavior, but learned associations also shape how organisms respond to stimuli.
• This material sets the stage for next topics in the course: operant conditioning (Skinner) and social learning (Bandura).
• Real-world relevance includes therapeutic techniques (e.g., exposure therapy for phobias) and the understanding of how conditioned cues in environments can influence behavior (advertising, habit formation, etc.).

Quick Practice and Takeaways

• Pavlov’s classical conditioning mappings:
  • US =
    ext{food}
  • UR =
    ext{salivation to food}
  • NS (before conditioning) =
    ext{bell}
  • CS (after conditioning) =
    ext{bell}
  • CR =
    ext{salivation to bell}
• Little Albert study mappings:
  • NS =
    ext{white rat (and other furry objects)}
  • US =
    ext{loud noise}
  • UR =
    ext{crying/fear}
  • CS =
    ext{furry animals (e.g., rat)}
  • CR =
    ext{fear/crying in presence of furry objects}
• Real-world implication: Exposure therapy as a method to reduce conditioned fear through gradual, controlled exposure to the CS without the US.
• Critical thinking prompts:
  • Identify the NS, US, UR, CS, and CR in Pavlov’s experiment.
  • In the Little Albert case, which elements serve as CS and CR, and why is generalization a concern?
  • What ethical issues arise from early behaviorist research, and how have modern standards changed the approach to such studies?

Summary of Key Points

• Behaviorism emphasizes observable behavior and learning through experience, with a focus on how associations between stimuli shape responses.
• Classical conditioning demonstrates how a neutral stimulus can come to elicit a learned response after pairing with a natural stimulus.
• Pavlov’s dog experiments illustrate the basic mechanism: NS + US → UR, leading to CS → CR after conditioning.
• The Office Altoids clip provides a contemporary, relatable demonstration of how a CS can predict a reward and elicit a conditioned response.
• Watson’s Little Albert study is a notorious example of conditioned fear, highlighting both the power of conditioning and the ethical concerns that led to stricter protections in research.
• The material connects to broader principles of psychology, underpinning therapeutic techniques like exposure therapy and setting the stage for operant conditioning and social learning in subsequent lectures.