Chapter+25

Defending Madrid: The Spanish Civil War

• The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between the Republican government and Francisco Franco's nationalist forces.

• This conflict foreshadowed the rise of fascism and the threats to democracy.

• Despite the U.S. government’s official neutrality, thousands of Americans volunteered to fight for the Republicans.

• A 1938 Spanish war poster declared "Defending Madrid Is Defending Catalonia," serving to rally support for the protection of Madrid against Franco's forces.

American Foreign Policy in the Interwar Years

Role of Henry Cabot Lodge

• Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, key in preventing U.S. entry into the League of Nations, believed in maintaining American independence in foreign matters.

• Lodge asserted that America should have influence internationally but remain free from commitments.

• His perspective shaped American foreign policy in the 1920s, focusing on limited engagement.

American Isolationism

• Critics branded American foreign policy as "isolationism," claiming it abandoned international responsibilities.

• Despite claims of isolationism, America was actively involved in world affairs regarding military and economic interests.

• This period was characterized by cautious internationalism without formal commitments to allies.

Washington Conference and Diplomacy

• The Washington Conference of 1921 aimed to prevent an arms race among major naval powers (U.S., Britain, Japan).

• Secretary of State Hughes's proposals led to the Five-Power Pact, establishing naval ratios to prevent escalation.

• This conference was a key diplomatic success, promoting stability while maintaining American independence.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

• In 1928, the Kellogg-Briand Pact aimed to outlaw war as national policy, signed by 14 nations.

• Though it lacked enforcement mechanisms, it reflected America's moral stance against war but was largely ineffective.

Economic Factors Influencing Foreign Policy

War Debts and Circular Loans

• European powers faced substantial debts from WWI, which the U.S. did not forgive, leading to financial turmoil.

• The Dawes Plan of 1924 restructured Germany's reparations, leading to a cycle of American loans to Germany used to pay back war debts.

• These loans created a reliance on the U.S. economy and reflected American interests abroad.

Economic Expansion in Latin America

• U.S. investments in Latin America surged in the 1920s, driven by economic motives.

• Military presence was used to secure these investments and limit the influence of revolutionary movements.

Hoover and the Global Crisis

The Impact of the Great Depression

• The global financial crisis of 1929 heightened nationalism and crises in various countries, threatening diplomatic efforts.

• By 1931, Hoover faced jurisdictional challenges as various regimes collapsed under economic pressure.

American Non-Intervention

• In Latin America, Hoover adopted a non-intervention policy, granting recognition to existing governments without probing their legitimacy.

• In Europe, efforts at economic stability met resistance, as American policymakers resisted calls to cancel war debts.

The Rise of Totalitarianism

Threats from Fascism and Militarism

• Italy under Mussolini and Germany under Hitler posed increasing threats, characterized by nationalism and militarism.

• Hitler's regime capitalized on political unrest and economic despair, gaining traction for invasive territorial ambitions.

Japan's Militarization

• Japan's invasion of Manchuria marked an aggressive expansion, met with ineffective protests from the U.S. and the League of Nations.

• The Sino-Japanese War began with escalated aggression from Japan toward China in 1937, but U.S. responses were limited.

Changing Political Climate and American Reaction

The Munich Conference and Its Aftermath

• The Munich Conference of September 1938 aimed to prevent conflict but ultimately resulted in German expansion into Czechoslovakia.

• America's cautious response illustrated appeasement failures as Europe spiraled into war.

The Road to Pearl Harbor

Prelude to War

• Japan's aggressive maneuvers in Southeast Asia incited tensions, exemplified by its expansion into Indochina and subsequent attacks.

• Diplomatic attempts to negotiate with Japan during late 1941 failed to prevent conflict; U.S. assets in Japan faced freezing and embargoes.

The Attack on Pearl Harbor

• On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, resulting in extensive U.S. military losses.

• This attack unified American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, leading to declarations of war against Japan and its allies.