The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution

Overview of the Scientific Revolution

• Definition: An intellectual and cultural transformation that occurred in Europe from the mid-1500s to early 1700s.

• Focus on Knowledge Acquisition:

  • Knowledge was acquired through:

  • Careful observations.

  • Controlled experiments.

  • Formulation of general laws.

  • Mathematical expressions.

• Shift in Belief Systems:

  • Emphasis on empirical evidence led to a decline in reliance on:

  • The authority of the Bible.

  • The Church.

  • The speculations of ancient philosophers.

  • Received wisdom of cultural traditions.

Origins of the Scientific Revolution

Why Europe?

• Development of a legal system in the 12th and 13th centuries that promoted independence among various institutions:

  • Examples of independent institutions include:

  • The Church.

  • Towns and cities.

  • Workers’ guilds.

  • Professional organizations.

  • Universities.

• University Independence: Universities gained a level of academic freedom, allowing scholars to study without external repression from Church or state authorities.

• Notably, many pivotal figures in the Scientific Revolution were educated in or affiliated with these universities, e.g., Cambridge University in England.

Why Not the Islamic World?

• Islamic colleges and universities focused mainly on:

  • Quranic studies.

  • Religious law.

• Restrictions on Science:

  • Science was often practiced outside formal educational systems.

  • Religious scholars were generally suspicious of science and philosophy, believing that the Quran encompasses all wisdom.

  • Concerns emerged that scientific inquiry might challenge the Quran, causing uncertainty and confusion.

Why Not China?

• Chinese education prioritized preparation for civil service examinations based on classical Confucian texts.

• Lack of Independent Institutions: The Chinese authorities did not permit independent institutions of learning where scholars could freely pursue their inquiries.

Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Background:

  • Polish astronomer, began his career at University of Krakow in 1492.

  • A pivotal figure at the start of the Scientific Revolution when questioning traditional beliefs was rare.

• Contributions:

  • Proposed that the Earth is round and orbits around the sun.

  • Argued that the sun, rather than the Earth, is the center of the universe, challenging the notion of Earth's uniqueness in divine creation.

Johannes Kepler

• Background:

  • German astronomer and mathematician; Protestant.

• Contributions:

  • Utilized mathematical formulas to demonstrate that planets revolve around the sun.

  • Discovered that planets move in elliptical (oval) orbits.

  • Noted variable planetary speeds, where planets travel faster as they approach the sun.

Galileo Galilei

• Background:

  • Italian mathematician and scientist.

• Contributions:

  • Improved the telescope and made significant observations:

  • Observed sunspots.

  • Identified mountains on the moon.

  • Discovered Jupiter's moons.

  • Developed the pendulum clock.

  • Published his findings in 1636 in a book, which was later banned by the Catholic Church.

• Opposition:

  • Faced severe opposition from the Catholic Church.

  • Endured house arrest for 50 years, during which he made numerous discoveries.

Sir Isaac Newton

• Background:

  • British scientist; initially a below-average student at Cambridge University.

• Formative Experience:

  • During the plague in 1665, he returned home and saw an apple fall, leading to the development of his theory of gravity.

• Key Publications:

  • In 1687, published theories on gravity:

  • Explained how gravity prevents objects from flying away from Earth and holds the solar system together.

• Contributions to Mathematics:

  • Formulated modern laws of motion and mechanics.

  • Developed calculus, a mathematical system for calculating changing forces or quantities.

  • Demonstrated that mathematics can describe the workings of the universe.

Francis Bacon

• Background:

  • English philosopher and advocate for the scientific approach.

• Philosophy:

  • Advocated for the pursuit of truth through investigation and evidence.

  • Helped formulate the scientific method, which includes:

  1. Observe.

  2. Make a hypothesis.

  3. Test the hypothesis.

  4. Draw a conclusion.

Rene Descartes

• Background:

  • French philosopher and mathematician.

• Philosophy:

  • Asserted that knowledge is obtained through mathematical reasoning and logical deduction.

  • Invented analytic geometry.

  • Famous quote: "I think, therefore I am."

William Harvey

• Background:

  • English physician.

• Contributions:

  • Demonstrated that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart and returning via veins.

  • Prior assumptions posited that the liver was responsible for digesting food and creating blood.

Robert Hooke

• Background:

  • English scientist.

• Contributions:

  • Discovered cells using a new microscope, identifying cells in plant tissues.

Robert Boyle

• Background:

  • Irish chemist.

• Contributions:

  • Established the discipline of chemistry as a separate scientific field.

  • Proven that air is not a fundamental element, thus challenging prevailing views.

  • Defined elements as substances that cannot be broken down into simpler parts, confronting alchemical traditions like the pursuit of turning lead into gold.

Joseph Priestley

• Background:

  • English chemist and clergyman.

• Contributions:

  • Conducted experiments revealing the properties of air and discovered oxygen.

  • His work on carbon dioxide led to the invention of carbonated beverages, such as soda.