Mark H. Ashcraft, Gabriel A. Radvansky - Cognition-Pearson (2014) copy

Chapter 1: Cognitive Psychology

Thinking About Thinking

• Cognitive Psychology examines human memory and cognition, focusing on mental events and knowledge used in recognizing objects, remembering names, and solving problems.

• Fundamental questions include:

  • How do we read meaning?

  • How do we memorize facts?

  • What does it mean to forget?

  • How do we know what we don’t know?

• The central theme is understanding how people think, using an objective scientific approach.

Memory and Cognition Defined

• Memory:

  • A process involving acquisition, retention, and retrieval of information.

  • Stored information can include childhood memories or recent events; it integrates past experiences and current use.

  • Memory is not limited to long durations but includes retention over brief moments.

• Cognition:

  • Encompasses mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and understanding.

  • Cognitive Psychology focuses on everyday mental processes.

An Introductory History of Cognitive Psychology

• The scientific study of cognition has roots that trace back to early philosophers and experimental psychologists.

• Notable figures:

  • Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Established the first psychology lab, laid groundwork for cognitive experiments.

  • Edward Titchener: Developed structuralism and emphasized the introspection method.

  • Hermann von Ebbinghaus: Conducted pioneering research on memory and forgetting using nonsense syllables.

  • William James: Proposed functionalism and discussed divided memory systems.

Behaviorism and Neobehaviorism

• From the 1910s to the 1950s, psychology focused on observable behavior, largely sidelining cognitive processes.

• Key behaviorists included:

  • John B. Watson: Advocated that psychology study observable behaviors rather than the unobservable mind.

  • B.F. Skinner: Stressed the unobserved mental processes were irrelevant to scientific behavior study.

Emerging Cognition: The Winds of Change

• The cognitive revolution (1950s) marked a shift back to mental processes. Influential in this resurgence:

  • The contributions from linguistics, neuroscience, and artificial intelligence.

  • World War II research highlighted practical concerns about human thinking and decision-making.

Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing

• Cognitive Psychology focuses on understanding the mental processes similar to the operations of a computer.

• Major concepts:

  • Channel Capacity: Humans are limited in attention and processing, akin to communication systems.

  • Computer Analogy: Mental processes can be viewed similarly to information processes in computers.

Measuring Information Processes

• Cognitive psychologists often use:

  • Response Time (RT): Measures the reaction speed to stimuli as a way of studying cognitive processes.

  • Accuracy: Assesses the success of response to stimuli in identifying human cognitive capabilities.

Information Processing and Cognitive Science

• Standard Theory of Memory:

  • Consists of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

  • Information processing is thought to flow through stages, from perception to response.

• Process Models: These are detailed hypotheses about how specific mental tasks are completed based on empirical data.

Themes

• Cognitive Psychology exposes core themes across cognitive tasks:

  • Attention, memory, learning processes, and interaction with context influence cognition.

Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience and Cognitive Science

Cognitive Neuroscience

• Connects understanding of the brain's structure and function with mental processes.

• Focuses on how neural processes influence cognition.

• Neurons:

  • Basic building blocks of the nervous system, averaging around 100 billion neurons in the human brain, interconnected in about 100 trillion connections.

• Neural Communication:

  • Involves action potentials (electrical) and neurotransmitters (chemical) across synapses.

Neuroanatomy

• Key brain structures involved in cognition include:

  • Thalamus: Gateway for sensory information to the cortex.

  • Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right hemispheres.

  • Hippocampus: Key for memory formation.

  • Amygdala: Processes emotional information, linked with memory.

Neuroimaging Techniques

• Include:

  • CT and MRI: Assess brain structure and abnormalities.

  • PET and fMRI: Measure metabolic activity and blood flow, indicating neural engagement during tasks.

Neural Net Models: Connectionism

• Connectionist models simulate mental processes using networks of interconnected units that mimic neuron behavior.

• These models effectively combine bottom-up feature detection processes with top-down influences from context and experience.