Ch14 & 15: Exam Review - Acids and Bases

Acids: Substances that increase the $H^+$ concentration in a solution (usually water). Acids are often described as "fragile molecules" and are considered "exceptions to the rule" because they mostly exist as covalent molecules but readily/easily break apart into ions when in water.
Bases: Substances that increase the $OH^-$ concentration in a solution.
Chemical Formulas: Acidic chemical formulas usually begin with the $H^+$ ion.
Hydronium and Hydrogen Ions: The terms $H_3O^+$ (hydronium ion) and $H^+$ (hydrogen ion) are considered interchangeable when understanding acids.
The Proton: The $H^+$ ion is actually called a "proton" because it is a subatomic particle.

Acidity (Acid Characteristics): * Meaning: Acid relates to the term for "degrade or eat away." * Taste: Generally tastes sour. * Feel: Generally feels itchy on the skin. * Litmus Test: Turns blue litmus paper pink. * pH Range: $0$ to $6.99$ .
Alkalinity (Base Characteristics): * Alkaline: Another name for a base, particularly when referring to high concentrations of ionic salts. * Taste: Generally tastes bitter. * Caustic: A term for a base meaning "to burn when in contact." * Feel: Generally feels itchy (or slippery/soapy in standard contexts, though the transcript specifies "generally feels itchy" and identifies it as caustic). * Litmus Test: Turns pink litmus paper blue. * pH Range: $7.01$ to $14$ .

Binary Acids: A specific type of acid containing only two elements: one must be $H^+$ and the other must be a monatomic anion.
Oxyanion Acids (Oxyacids): A specific type of acid containing $H^+$ and a polyatomic ion.
Strong Acids: These acids are capable of displacing weak acids.
Monoprotic Acid: An acid that releases exactly $1$ $H^+$ ion.
Diprotic Acid: An acid that releases $2$ $H^+$ ions.
Triprotic Acid: An acid that releases $3$ $H^+$ ions.
Amphoteric: A substance that can act as both an acid and a base at the same time (e.g., water). This is usually associated with the Brønsted-Lowry definition.

System for Binary Acids (Monatomic Anion Ending Change): * Used by many anions, especially monatomic anions where the original ion ending is "-ide." * Naming Formula: The prefix "hydro-" + the root of the anion + the suffix "-ic" + the word "acid." * Conversion Rule: Original anion ending "-ide" becomes new acid ending "hydro-root-ic."
System for Oxyacids (Polyanion Ending Changes): * Rule A: If the original polyatomic anion ends in "-ate," the new acid ending is the suffix "-ic." * Rule B: If the original polyatomic anion ends in "-ite," the new acid ending is the suffix "-ous."

Brønsted-Lowry Acid: A substance that acts as a proton donor ( $H^+$ donor).
Brønsted-Lowry Base: A substance that acts as a proton acceptor ( $H^+$ acceptor).
Conjugate Base: The substance that remains after a Brønsted-Lowry acid has donated its proton.
Conjugate Acid: The substance that remains after a Brønsted-Lowry base has accepted a proton.

Concentration: Another name for Molarity; it refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a quantity of solvent or solution.
Molarity ( $M$ ): Expresses the concentration of a solution as the moles of solute per liter of solution.
Dilution: The process of decreasing the concentration of a solution by adding additional solvent. This describes a state where particles are pushed farther away per unit volume.
Mixture: Two or more pure substances that are not chemically bonded.
Solution: A homogeneous mixture with a uniform distribution of particles.
Solvent: The substance found in the larger amount within a mixture.
Solute: The substance found in the smaller amount within a mixture.
Stock or Standard Solution: A routinely used laboratory solution of a known concentration.
Concentrated Solution: A general term for a solution with a high number of solute particles per unit volume.
Diluted Solution: A general term for a solution with a fewer number of solute particles per unit volume.

pH: Represents the "power of hydrogen" or "hydrogen powered." It is a simplified unitless measure of the $H^+$ concentration for a solution.
pH Scale: A simplified scale of concentrations of $H^+$ used to show how acidic or basic a solution is.
pH of Pure Water: The pH number of pure water is exactly $7.00$ .
Self-Ionization: The act of bringing a solution closer to a pH of $7$ to make it safer for human use.
Self-Ionization of Water: Occurs when two water molecules self-cleave to form $H^+$ and $OH^-$ (through donation and acceptance).
$K_w$ (Ionization Constant of Water): The name for the constant representing the self-ionization of water. * Numerical Value: $1.0 \times 10^{-14}\,M^2$ at $25^\circ C$ .
Anti-log: The name of the calculator button ( $10^x$ ) used in pH calculations.

Neutralization: * General term meaning to "cancel out." * An acid-base chemical reaction in which an acid cancels out a base. * Products of Acid + Base: Salt (ionic compound) + $H_2O$ . * Products of Acid + Active Metal: Salt (ionic compound) + $H_2$ .
Reaction Types: * Double Displacement (DD) or Double Replacement (DR): Acid-base neutralization reactions are categorized as this type. * Single Replacement: Chemical reactions between an acid and an active metal are this type.
Buffers: Substances that resist significant changes to pH. * Acidic Buffer: A substance made from a weak acid and its conjugate base (acid-conjugate base pair). * Basic Buffer: A substance made from a weak base and its conjugate acid (base-conjugate acid pair).
Alkaineals: Elements found in Group 1 and sometimes Group 2 on the periodic table (Alkali and Alkaline Earth metals).

Titration: A method of using a solution of known concentration to determine the unknown concentration of another solution.
Analyte: During titration, this is the substance of unknown concentration placed in the Erlenmeyer flask.
Titrant: During titration, this is the substance of known concentration (another name for the stock or standard solution) placed in the buret.
Burette/Buret: A very accurate volumetric device used during titration to dispense the titrant.
Indicator: A compound that changes color at a certain pH (e.g., phenolphthalein). Indicators change color based on whether the compound is more ionized or less ionized.
Phenolphthalein: A common indicator used specifically in acid-base titration reactions.
Equivalence Point: The point in a titration where the concentration of the acid and the concentration of the base are equal (pH $7$ in a strong acid-strong base titration).
End Point: The point during a titration where a visible color change occurs.