II. Life Science

1. Cell Structure

Flashcard 1: Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

  • Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no nucleus (e.g., bacteria).

  • Eukaryotes: Organisms with cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., animals, plants, fungi).

Flashcard 2: Organelles

  • Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

  • Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell; site of cellular respiration.

  • Cell Membrane: Protects the cell and regulates what enters/exits.

  • Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance where cell processes occur.

  • Chloroplasts (plants): Site of photosynthesis; contain chlorophyll.

2. Cell Functions

Flashcard 3: Cellular Respiration

  • Definition: Process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.

  • Formula: C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP.

Flashcard 4: Photosynthesis

  • Definition: Process by which plants use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.

  • Reactants: CO2, H2O, sunlight.

  • Products: Glucose, O2.

  • Chlorophyll: Pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs sunlight.

3. Human Body Systems

Flashcard 5: Circulatory System

  • Function: Transports blood, nutrients, and oxygen throughout the body.

Flashcard 6: Respiratory System

  • Function: Facilitates gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out) through lungs.

Flashcard 7: Digestive System

  • Function: Breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed by the body.

Flashcard 8: Excretory System

  • Function: Removes waste from the body, including kidneys, bladder, and urinary tract.

Flashcard 9: Nervous System

  • Function: Coordinates body activities and responses to stimuli.

Flashcard 10: Endocrine System

  • Function: Regulates hormones and controls processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Flashcard 11: Immune System

  • Function: Defends the body against pathogens (viruses, bacteria).

4. Reproduction and Heredity

Flashcard 12: Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction

  • Sexual: Involves two parents; produces genetically diverse offspring (meiosis).

  • Asexual: Involves one parent; offspring are genetically identical (binary fission, budding).

Flashcard 13: Mitosis vs. Meiosis

  • Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.

  • Meiosis: Cell division that produces four non-identical sex cells (gametes).

Flashcard 14: DNA Structure

  • Double Helix: The shape of DNA, consisting of two strands coiled together.

  • Nitrogen Bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).

  • Sugar-Phosphate Backbone: The structural framework of DNA.

Flashcard 15: Mendelian Genetics

  • Dominant Traits: Traits expressed in the presence of one dominant allele.

  • Recessive Traits: Traits expressed only when both alleles are recessive.

  • Punnett Square: Tool to predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

5. Evolution and Diversity

Flashcard 16: Natural Selection

  • Charles Darwin: Proposed that organisms with traits better suited for survival are more likely to reproduce.

Flashcard 17: Adaptation and Mutation

  • Adaptation: A characteristic that improves an organism's ability to survive in its environment.

  • Mutation: A change in DNA that may lead to new traits.

Flashcard 18: Fossils and Evidence of Evolution

  • Fossils: Preserved remains of ancient organisms; provide evidence of past life and evolutionary changes.

Flashcard 19: Classification of Organisms

  • Kingdoms: Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists, Bacteria.

  • Taxonomy: Classification hierarchy: Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.

6. Interdependence of Organisms

Flashcard 20: Food Chains and Webs

  • Producers: Organisms that produce their own food (e.g., plants).

  • Consumers: Organisms that eat other organisms (primary, secondary, tertiary).

  • Decomposers: Organisms that break down dead matter (e.g., fungi, bacteria).

Flashcard 21: Symbiotic Relationships

  • Mutualism: Both organisms benefit (e.g., bees and flowers).

  • Commensalism: One organism benefits, the other is unaffected (e.g., barnacles on whales).

  • Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of the other (e.g., fleas on dogs).

Flashcard 22: Ecosystems and Biomes

  • Tundra: Cold, treeless, with permafrost.

  • Desert: Dry, hot, with little rainfall.

  • Rainforest: Dense, warm, wet environment with high biodiversity.

  • Grassland: Dominated by grasses, with seasonal rainfall.

  • Aquatic: Water-based biomes (e.g., oceans, freshwater lakes).

Flashcard 23: Carrying Capacity and Limiting Factors

  • Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of individuals an environment can support.

  • Limiting Factors: Resources or conditions that limit the growth of a population (e.g., food, water, space).

7. Life Cycles

Flashcard 24: Plant Life Cycle

  • Stages: Seed → Germination → Growth → Reproduction.

Flashcard 25: Animal Life Cycle (Metamorphosis)

  • Stages: Egg → Larva → Pupa → Adult (for organisms like butterflies).

1. Homeostasis

  • Definition: The process by which organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.

2. Amino Acid

  • Definition: Organic compounds that combine to form proteins; building blocks of proteins.

3. Cell Division

  • Definition: The process by which a parent cell divides to form two or more daughter cells (e.g., mitosis and meiosis).

4. Genes and Heredity

  • Definition: Genes are segments of DNA that determine traits. Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to offspring.

5. Gregor Mendel

  • Definition: Father of genetics; known for his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity.

6. Law of Segregation

  • Definition: Mendel's law stating that each organism has two alleles for each trait, and these alleles segregate during gamete formation.

7. Law of Independent Assortment

  • Definition: Mendel's law stating that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

8. Regulation

  • Definition: The process of controlling or managing biological functions, such as homeostasis and gene expression.

9. Ectothermic

  • Definition: Organisms that regulate their body temperature based on external environmental conditions (e.g., reptiles).

10. Open Circulatory System

  • Definition: A system where blood flows freely within the body cavity, directly bathing organs (e.g., in arthropods and mollusks).

11. Closed Circulatory System

  • Definition: A system where blood circulates within vessels, separated from the surrounding tissue (e.g., in vertebrates).

12. Interdependence of Organisms

  • Definition: The reliance of different organisms on each other for survival, often seen in ecosystems and food webs.

13. Food/Energy Pyramid

  • Definition: A graphical representation of the flow of energy through an ecosystem, from producers at the base to top predators.

14. Symbiosis

  • Definition: A close relationship between two different species that live together, often benefiting at least one of the organisms (e.g., mutualism, commensalism, parasitism).

15. Bacteria

  • Definition: Single-celled microorganisms that can be beneficial or harmful; part of the prokaryotes group.

16. Virus

  • Definition: Microscopic infectious agents that can only reproduce within living host cells.

17. Animal Cells

  • Definition: Eukaryotic cells that make up animal organisms, lacking a cell wall but containing organelles like the nucleus and mitochondria.

18. Plant Cells

  • Definition: Eukaryotic cells that make up plant organisms; contain cell walls, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole.

19. Cell Reproduction

  • Definition: The process by which cells divide to create new cells, such as through mitosis or meiosis.

20. Benefits of Sexual Reproduction over Asexual Reproduction

  • Definition: Sexual reproduction introduces genetic diversity, helping populations adapt to environmental changes, while asexual reproduction creates identical offspring.

21. Trisomy

  • Definition: A genetic condition where an individual has three copies of a chromosome instead of two (e.g., Down syndrome, trisomy 21).

22. DNA

  • Definition: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms.

23. Change Over Time in Living Things

  • Definition: The process of evolution, where species gradually change over generations.

24. Evolution

  • Definition: The process through which species change over time through mechanisms like natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift.

25. Behavior

  • Definition: The actions or reactions of an organism in response to its environment or stimuli.

26. Endothermic

  • Definition: Organisms that regulate their body temperature internally (e.g., mammals and birds).

27. Vertebrate

  • Definition: Animals with a backbone or spinal column (e.g., mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish).

28. Invertebrate

  • Definition: Animals without a backbone (e.g., insects, mollusks, worms).

29. Unity of Life

  • Definition: The concept that all living organisms share certain characteristics, such as the presence of cells, DNA, and the ability to reproduce.

30. Diversity of Life

  • Definition: The variety of living organisms in the world, resulting from evolutionary processes and adaptation to different environments.

31. Classification

  • Definition: The scientific system of categorizing living organisms into groups based on shared characteristics (e.g., kingdom, genus, species).

32. Competition

  • Definition: When two or more organisms vie for the same resources, such as food, shelter, or mates, often leading to survival of the fittest.

33. Predation

  • Definition: An interaction where one organism (predator) hunts and consumes another organism (prey).

34. Covalent Bond

  • Definition: A type of chemical bond where two atoms share electrons to form a stable molecule.