Strong Nuclear Force and Potential Energy

Strong Nuclear Force and Potential Energy

• When two nuclei (protons) move closer than atomic size, the strong nuclear force manifests.

• The potential energy of the system decreases as the protons approach each other, due to attractive forces.

Potential Energy Diagram for Protons

• Start with protons at a significant distance apart (high potential energy).

• Initially, protons experience repulsion due to electrostatic forces (Coulombic barrier), causing an increase in potential energy.

• As protons get closer, potential energy decreases drastically when strong nuclear force overwhelms electrostatic repulsion.

• Correct diagram representation is option C.

Coulombic Barrier

• Electrostatic forces initially repel protons, making fusion unlikely under normal conditions.

• This barrier requires significant energy input to overcome.

Energy Release in Fusion

• After surpassing the Coulombic barrier, the strong nuclear force draws nuclei together, causing potential energy to drop significantly.

• Similar to bond formation, energy is released during fusion, termed binding energy.

Energy-Mass Relationship in Fission and Fusion

• Nuclear reactions release more energy than chemical reactions, quantified using Einstein's equation E=mc².

• Example: Fusing deuterium and tritium produces helium and neutron, with a decrease in total mass, indicating energy release.

• Mass defect (difference between calculated and actual mass) results in binding energy, emphasized in E=mc².

Calculating Energy from Mass Defect

• For deuterium formation, mass defect = 0.002388 amu.

• Energy released by a single deuterium atom calculated as 3.56 x 10⁻¹³ joules.

• For one mole of deuterium, energy released = 2.14 x 10¹¹ joules.

  • This energy is significantly higher than combustion reactions (e.g., methane).

Challenges of Fusion on Earth

• Despite high energy output, fusion needs extreme conditions (temperature and pressure) similar to the sun.

• Overcoming the Coulombic barrier in a controlled environment remains a challenge.

Types of Fusion Reactions in the Sun

1. Hydrogen burning: Four protons fuse to make helium, releasing energy.

2. Helium burning: Forms carbon from three helium nuclei.

• Hydrogen burning entails a decrease in atom number leading to heavier elements.

Nuclear Fission and its Implications

• Fission: Splitting of heavy atomic nuclei into lighter, more stable ones, releasing energy.

• Example: Neutron bombardment on U-235 causes fragmentation into smaller nuclei and more neutrons.

• Uncontrolled fission can lead to chain reactions.

• Enrichment required for effective nuclear reactions due to low natural U-235 abundance.

Stability in Nuclei

• Iron has the most stable nucleus structure.

• Energy dynamics in nuclei (fusion/fission) depend on the ratio of neutrons to protons.

Radioactive Decay

• Occurs spontaneously, involving alpha, beta, and gamma emissions.

• Stability band indicates that heavier nuclei require higher neutron ratios; decay aims to reach stability.

Atoms as Building Blocks

• Interactions and external conditions dictate how atoms behave (solid, liquid, gas).

• Emergent properties arise from collective atomic interactions, not single isolated atoms.

Bonding Theory Overview

• Electrons in molecules dictate properties; changes in phase indicate energy absorption or release.

• Energy required to break bonds during phase transitions reflects individual atomic interactions.

Covalent and Metallic Bonds

• Covalent bonds (strong) vs. metallic bonds (which allow for conductivity and malleability).

• Molecular orbital theory helps explain material behavior at atomic levels, including electrical conductivity in metals.

• Metals shine due to their continuous metallic bond and electron mobility.

Carbon: Diamond and Graphite Comparison

• Diamond (hard, non-conductive, forms strong covalent bonds) vs. graphite (soft, conducts electricity, contains layers held by London dispersion forces).

• Bonding in diamond involves hybridization (sp3) forming tetrahedrally arranged bonds, while graphite has sp2 hybridized carbon with delocalized electrons.