EOPA-ALLIED HEALTH & MEDICINE: Standard 1: Diseases & Disorders-1.2

Anxiety

Etiology- Changes in brain chemicals and their functioning, Environmental stress, Family history, or Traumatic life events.

Pathology- This happens when the brain circuits involved in fear become oversensitive.

Diagnosis- Physical examination and a review of medical history. Laboratory and imaging tests may be done to rule out any other medical condition causing the symptoms. Psychological questionnaires can evaluate mental health.

Treatment- Medications aim to reduce the symptoms of anxiety. Relaxation techniques and behavioral therapy are also helpful in most cases.

Prevention- Keep physically active, Avoid alcohol and recreational drugs, Quit smoking and cut back or quit drinking caffeinated beverages, or Use stress management and relaxation techniques.

Arthritis

Etiology- Wear and Tear due to overuse, Age: more common in adults over 50, Injuries, Obesity, Autoimmune Disorders.

Pathology- Swelling and tenderness of one or more joints.

Diagnosis—Doctors examine joint movements. Blood tests and imaging tests (X-ray, CT, MRI, or ultrasound) help diagnose the severity of inflammation and check the progression of the disease.

Treatment—Medications like NSAIDs (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) will help reduce both pain and inflammation. Procedures like Joint repair or Joint replacement surgery and Physical therapy can treat arthritis symptoms. However, treatments vary depending on the type of arthritis. The treatment focuses on reducing symptoms and improving quality of life.

Prevention—Although arthritis cannot always be prevented, the risk can be reduced by altering eating habits and proper exercise.

Asthma

Etiology—Asthma is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, which can lead to difficulty breathing, wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness.

Pathology- The pathology of asthma involves inflammation of the airways, which leads to swelling and constriction of the muscles around them.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of asthma typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, lung function tests (such as spirometry and peak flow measurements), and sometimes allergy testing.

Treatment- Bronchodilators: These medications, such as short-acting beta-agonists (e.g., albuterol) and long-acting beta-agonists, relax the muscles around the airways, making breathing easier. Anti-inflammatory drugs: Inhaled corticosteroids are the most common anti-inflammatory medications to reduce airway inflammation and prevent asthma attacks.

Prevention- Avoid exposure to allergens and irritants such as smoke, pollution, dust mites, pet dander, and mold; keep indoor environments clean and well-ventilated; or take prescribed medications regularly as directed by a healthcare provider.

Bipolar Disorder

Etiology- Bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic-depressive illness, is a mental health condition characterized by extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression).

Pathology- The pathology of bipolar disorder involves the dysregulation of neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. This dysregulation contributes to the characteristic mood swings observed in bipolar disorder.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of bipolar disorder is based on a thorough psychiatric evaluation, including a review of symptoms, medical history, and family history.

Treatment- Treatment for bipolar disorder typically involves a combination of medications, psychotherapy, and lifestyle modifications to stabilize mood, manage symptoms, and prevent relapse.

Prevention- Early identification and treatment of mood symptoms or other psychiatric conditions. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, balanced nutrition, sufficient sleep, and stress management. Avoiding substance abuse and seeking help for any substance-related problems promptly.

Cancer

Etiology- The exact causes of cancer vary depending on the type. Still, common risk factors include Genetic predisposition, Environmental factors (such as exposure to carcinogens like tobacco smoke, UV radiation, or certain chemicals), Lifestyle factors (such as poor diet, lack of physical activity, and obesity), or Chronic infections.

Pathology- Cancer begins when normal cells undergo genetic mutations that cause them to grow and divide uncontrollably. These abnormal cells can form tumors or invade nearby tissues and organs.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of cancer typically involves a combination of imaging tests (such as X-rays, CT scans, MRIs, or PET scans), laboratory tests (including blood tests and biopsies), and sometimes genetic testing to confirm the presence of cancer.

Treatment—Cancer treatment varies depending on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as the individual's overall health and preferences. Standard treatment options include Surgery to remove tumors or cancerous tissue, Radiation therapy to kill cancer cells or shrink tumors using high-energy radiation, and Chemotherapy to destroy cancer cells using powerful drugs.

Prevention- Avoiding known risk factors such as tobacco smoke, excessive sun exposure, and unhealthy diet and lifestyle choices. Getting regular physical activity and maintaining a healthy weight. Protecting against infections linked to cancer (e.g., HPV vaccination). Screening for cancer regularly (e.g., mammograms for breast cancer, colonoscopies for colorectal cancer) to detect it early when treatment is most effective.

Cataracts

Etiology- Cataracts occur when the eye's lens becomes clouded, leading to blurry vision and eventual vision loss. The primary risk factors for cataracts include Aging: Cataracts are more common in older adults. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation: Prolonged exposure to UV radiation from sunlight increases the risk of cataracts. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels can cause changes in the lens that contribute to cataract formation. Eye injury or inflammation: Trauma or inflammation in the eye can accelerate the development of cataracts.

Pathology- The eye's lens is usually straightforward and transparent, allowing light to pass through and focus on the retina. In cataracts, proteins in the lens clump together, causing clouding and opacity. This interferes with the passage of light, leading to vision impairment.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of cataracts is typically made during a comprehensive eye examination by an eye care professional.

Treatment-Treatment for cataracts involves surgical removal of the clouded lens and replacement with an artificial intraocular lens.

Prevention- While cataracts are a natural part of aging for many people, some steps can help reduce the risk or delay their development: wear sunglasses with UV protection to protect the eyes from UV radiation. Maintain a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet of fruits and vegetables, regular exercise, and not smoking. Manage chronic health conditions such as diabetes and hypertension to reduce the risk of complications that can contribute to cataracts.

Concussion/ Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Etiology: A Concussion or TBI occurs when a sudden jolt or blow to the head or body causes the brain to move rapidly within the skull.

Pathology-Primary injury: Direct mechanical damage to brain tissue during impact, such as bruising, tearing, or stretching of neurons and blood vessels. Secondary injury: Subsequent biochemical and metabolic changes that occur in the minutes to hours following the initial injury, including inflammation, oxidative stress, and disruption of cellular function. Neurochemical changes: Alterations in neurotransmitter levels and ion concentrations, leading to impaired communication between neurons and disruption of neuronal networks.

Diagnosis—Diagnosing a concussion or TBI involves clinical assessment, neuroimaging, and cognitive testing. Imaging tests such as CT scans or MRIs may be performed to rule out more severe injuries, but many concussions or TBIs do not show abnormalities on these tests. Cognitive tests, balance assessments, and symptom questionnaires may also be used to evaluate the extent of cognitive impairment and monitor recovery.

Treatment: Physical and cognitive rest: Limiting activities exacerbating symptoms and allowing the brain time to heal. Symptom management: Medications may be prescribed to alleviate headache, nausea, or other symptoms. Cognitive rehabilitation: Therapy to address cognitive deficits and improve memory, attention, and executive function.

Prevention- Prevention strategies focus on minimizing the risk of head injuries. In sports, this includes using proper protective equipment (e.g., helmets), teaching and enforcing safe playing techniques, and implementing rules to reduce the likelihood of collisions.

Cystic fibrosis

Etiology- Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) gene. These mutations produce a defective or dysfunctional CFTR protein, which affects the movement of salt and water in and out of cells, particularly in the lungs and digestive system.

Pathology- The defective CFTR protein produces thick, sticky mucus in various organs, particularly the lungs and pancreas.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of cystic fibrosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, genetic testing, and specialized diagnostic tests. Newborn screening programs in many countries allow for early detection of CF by testing for elevated levels of immunoreactive trypsinogen (IRT) in blood samples.

Treatment- Treatment for cystic fibrosis aims to manage symptoms, prevent complications, and improve quality of life. This often involves a multidisciplinary approach with healthcare providers specializing in pulmonology, gastroenterology, nutrition, and other areas. Treatment may include airway clearance techniques to help remove mucus from the lungs, bronchodilators to open airways, antibiotics to treat infections, and anti-inflammatory medications to reduce lung inflammation.

Prevention- Since cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder, prevention strategies primarily focus on genetic counseling and testing.

Carrier screening can identify individuals at risk of passing on CF mutations to their children, allowing for informed family planning decisions.

Prenatal testing during pregnancy can also identify fetuses affected by CF, enabling parents to make informed choices about their pregnancy and potential treatment options.

Dementia

Etiology- Brain Cell Damage: The primary cause of dementia is damage to brain cells. Various factors contribute to this damage, including Age, Genetics, Vascular Issues, Protein Accumulation, Neurological Disorders, Traumatic Brain Injury, Metabolic Disorders, Infections, Tumors, or Cancer.

Pathology- Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): The most common form of dementia, AD, involves progressive memory loss, language difficulties, and cognitive decline. Abnormal protein deposits (amyloid plaques and tau tangles) lead to neuronal damage. Vascular Dementia: Caused by impaired blood flow to the brain, often due to strokes or small vessel disease. Lewy Body Dementia is characterized by protein deposits (Lewy bodies) in brain cells, leading to cognitive fluctuations, visual hallucinations, and motor symptoms.

Diagnosis- A healthcare professional reviews your medical history and symptoms and conducts a physical exam. No single test can diagnose dementia. You'll likely need a number of tests that can help pinpoint the problem. Cognitive and neuropsychological tests: These tests evaluate your thinking ability. Neurological evaluation: your memory, language skills, visual perception, attention, problem-solving skills, movement, senses, balance, reflexes, and other areas are evaluated. Brain scans, CT or MRI. These scans can check for evidence of stroke, bleeding, tumor, or fluid buildup, known as hydrocephalus. PET scans. These scans can show patterns of brain activity.

Treatment- Cognitive Engagement, Physical Exercise, Socialization

Prevention- Healthy Diet, Vitamin E consumption, Manage Cholesterol: Opt for low-fat or fat-free foods, or Salt Moderation: Use salt and sodium moderately.

Depression

Etiology- Depression is a complex mental health disorder with multifactorial etiology. It can be influenced by genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors.

Pathology- The pathology of depression involves dysregulation of neural circuits and neurotransmitter systems in the brain. Structural and functional changes in areas of the brain involved in mood regulation, such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus, have been observed in individuals with depression.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of depression is primarily based on clinical assessment.

Treatment- Treatment of depression often involves a combination of pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, lifestyle modifications, and support interventions.

Prevention- Prevention strategies for depression focus on reducing risk factors and promoting protective factors. This may include early identification and treatment of mental health issues, stress management techniques, social support networks, healthy lifestyle habits, and resilience-building activities.

Diabetes

Etiology—Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. There are several types of diabetes: Type 1 diabetes Results from the autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to insulin deficiency. Type 2 diabetes develops when the body becomes resistant to insulin or fails to produce enough insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

Pathology- The pathology of diabetes involves dysregulation of blood glucose levels due to defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. In type 1 diabetes, autoimmune destruction of beta cells leads to an absolute insulin deficiency, resulting in uncontrolled hyperglycemia. In type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion contribute to elevated blood sugar levels.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of diabetes is based on blood tests that measure blood glucose levels. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test: Measures blood sugar levels after fasting for at least 8 hours. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test: Reflects average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months.

Treatment- Treatment of diabetes aims to achieve and maintain optimal blood sugar control, prevent complications, and improve quality of life. Type 1 diabetes is treated with insulin therapy, which may involve multiple daily injections or continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (insulin pump). Type 2 diabetes treatment includes lifestyle modifications (e.g., healthy diet, regular exercise, weight management) and medications to lower blood sugar levels.

Prevention includes maintaining a healthy weight through balanced nutrition and regular physical activity, avoiding sedentary behaviors, quitting smoking, limiting alcohol consumption, and managing stress. Screening and early detection of prediabetes can help identify individuals at high risk of developing diabetes, allowing for timely interventions to prevent or delay its onset.

Gastric Ulcer

Etiology- Gastric ulcers, also known as stomach ulcers, are open sores that develop on the stomach lining. They can be caused by various factors, including Infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) bacteria. This is the most common cause of gastric ulcers. H. pylori infection weakens the protective mucous layer of the stomach, allowing stomach acid to damage the underlying tissue. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): Regular use of NSAIDs such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen can irritate the stomach lining and increase the risk of developing ulcers. Excessive alcohol consumption.

Pathology—The pathology of gastric ulcers involves damage to the mucous membrane lining the stomach, leading to open sores forming.

Diagnosis—The diagnosis of gastric ulcers typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and diagnostic tests. Common diagnostic tests include upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (EGD), which allows direct visualization of the stomach lining, and biopsy of suspicious areas for H. pylori testing.

Treatment- Medications commonly used to treat gastric ulcers include Antibiotics. Combination antibiotic therapy is used to eradicate H. pylori infection if present. Antacids: These medications can provide symptomatic relief by neutralizing stomach acid.

Prevention- Avoiding or reducing the use of NSAIDs, particularly in individuals at high risk for ulcer formation. Limiting alcohol consumption and quitting smoking. Practicing good hygiene to reduce the risk of H. pylori infection, such as washing hands regularly and avoiding contaminated food and water.

Hepatitis

Etiology—Hepatitis refers to liver inflammation, which various factors, including Viral infections, can cause. Hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E, are the most common causes of viral hepatitis. Other infections: Hepatitis can also be caused by different viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, alcohol, toxins, and autoimmune disorders.

Pathology- In acute hepatitis, the liver becomes inflamed in response to infection or exposure to toxins. This can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine. Chronic hepatitis occurs when inflammation persists for more than six months. It can lead to progressive liver damage, fibrosis (scarring), cirrhosis (irreversible scarring), and an increased risk of liver cancer. Hepatitis viruses target liver cells, leading to cell injury and death.

Diagnosis-Diagnosis of hepatitis involves a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsy. Blood tests detect markers of liver inflammation and assess liver function. Imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI may be performed to evaluate the structure of the liver.

Treatment- Acute viral hepatitis may not require specific treatment, as the body can often clear the infection on its own. Supportive care measures such as rest, hydration, and avoiding alcohol may be recommended. Chronic hepatitis may require antiviral medications to suppress viral replication and reduce liver inflammation. In autoimmune hepatitis, immunosuppressive medications.

Prevention—Strategies for hepatitis prevention include vaccination, practicing good hygiene, avoiding exposure to contaminated blood or bodily fluids, and adopting healthy lifestyle habits.

Hypertension

Etiology- Non-modifiable risk factors: These include age, family history of hypertension, genetics, and ethnicity. Modifiable risk factors: Lifestyle factors such as unhealthy diet (high in sodium and low in potassium), sedentary lifestyle, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, obesity, stress, and certain underlying medical conditions.

Pathology- Hypertension is characterized by persistently elevated blood pressure levels, which can damage blood vessels and organs over time.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of hypertension is made based on blood pressure measurements taken on multiple occasions.

Treatment- Adopting a healthy diet and regular physical activity, including aerobic exercise and strength training, can help lower blood pressure. Weight loss, if overweight or obese, can significantly reduce blood pressure. Limiting alcohol consumption.

Prevention: Adopt a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products, and limit sodium intake.

Melanoma

Etiology- The exact cause of melanoma is not fully understood. Still, it is believed to involve a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors, particularly exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or artificial sources such as tanning beds.

Pathology- Melanoma arises when melanocytes undergo malignant transformation and grow uncontrollably, forming cancerous tumors.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of melanoma involves a combination of clinical evaluation, dermoscopy, and biopsy.

Treatment- Treatment of melanoma depends on the disease's stage, the tumor's size and location, and other individual factors. Surgical excision is the primary treatment for early-stage melanoma. Advanced melanoma may require additional treatments such as immunotherapy, targeted therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or combination therapy.

Prevention—Melanoma prevention involves minimizing exposure to UV radiation and practicing sun safety measures: Limit sun exposure, especially during peak hours (10 a.m. to 4 p.m.). Wear protective clothing, including wide-brimmed hats, long sleeves, and sunglasses. Use sunscreen with a high SPF (sun protection factor) and broad-spectrum protection against UVA and UVB rays.

Muscular Dystrophy

Etiology- The primary cause of muscular dystrophy is genetic mutations that affect the structure and function of muscle proteins.

Pathology- Muscular dystrophy leads to progressive muscle weakness and degeneration due to the absence or abnormality of specific muscle proteins.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of muscular dystrophy involves a combination of clinical evaluation, genetic testing, muscle biopsy, and imaging studies.

Treatment- Currently, there is no cure for muscular dystrophy, but various treatments and interventions can help manage symptoms and delay disease progression. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and assistive devices (e.g., braces and wheelchairs) can help maintain mobility, improve muscle strength and function, and prevent contractures (abnormal joint stiffness).

Prevention- Since muscular dystrophy is primarily genetic in origin, prevention strategies focus on genetic counseling, carrier testing, and prenatal diagnosis for families at risk of inheriting the condition.

Myocardial Infarction

Etiology- The most common cause of myocardial infarction is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) in a coronary artery, which supplies oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle.

Pathology- The pathology of myocardial infarction involves ischemia (inadequate blood supply) and necrosis (cell death) of myocardial tissue due to coronary artery occlusion.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of myocardial infarction involves a combination of clinical evaluation, electrocardiography (ECG/EKG), blood tests, and imaging studies.

Treatment—Immediate treatment measures for acute myocardial infarction include Oxygen therapy to increase oxygen delivery to the heart muscle and aspirin and other antiplatelet medications to prevent further blood clot formation.

Prevention: Adopt a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats and limiting intake of saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, sodium, and added sugars.

Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI)

Etiology- Caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that are transmitted through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, or oral sex.

Pathology- The pathology of STIs varies depending on the causative organism but often involves inflammation, tissue damage, and the development of symptoms in the genital, anal, or oral mucosa.

Diagnosis—The diagnosis of STIs typically involves a combination of clinical assessment, laboratory testing, and sometimes imaging studies.

Treatment- Treatment of STIs depends on the specific pathogen involved and may involve antimicrobial medications such as antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, or antiparasitic drugs.

Prevention- Safer sex practices, Regular STI screening and testing for sexually active individuals, and vaccination against vaccine-preventable STIs.

Stroke/ Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

Etiology- Stroke occurs when blood flow to a part of the brain is disrupted, leading to brain cell damage and neurological deficits. The most common types of stroke are ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot or plaque obstructs a blood vessel supplying the brain, reducing blood flow and oxygen delivery to brain tissue. Hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a weakened blood vessel ruptures, causing bleeding into the brain.

Pathology- The pathology of stroke involves brain injury due to ischemia or hemorrhage, leading to neurological deficits that vary depending on the location and extent of brain damage.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of stroke involves a combination of clinical evaluation, neuroimaging studies, and laboratory tests.

Treatment- Treatment is based on the type of stroke. For ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack, medication surgery, or both can be recommended, and for hemorrhagic stroke, surgery is recommended.

Prevention- Management of hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, and other underlying medical conditions through medication adherence, lifestyle modifications (e.g., healthy diet, regular exercise, weight management), and regular medical check-ups.

Tuberculosis

Etiology- Tuberculosis is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium that primarily affects the lungs but can also involve other organs and tissues in the body.

Pathology- The pathology of tuberculosis involves a complex interplay between the host immune response and the invading mycobacteria.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of tuberculosis involves a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory testing, and imaging studies.

Treatment- Treatment of tuberculosis involves antimicrobial therapy with multiple antibiotics to eradicate the bacteria, prevent the development of drug resistance, and minimize the risk of relapse.

Prevention- Tuberculosis control measures include early detection and treatment of active cases, contact tracing and screening of close contacts, infection control measures in healthcare settings, and vaccination.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

Etiology- Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are commonly caused by bacteria, most often Escherichia coli (E. coli), which generally reside in the gastrointestinal tract but can enter the urinary tract and multiply, leading to infection.

Pathology—The pathology of UTIs involves the invasion and colonization of the urinary tract by pathogenic microorganisms, which leads to inflammation and tissue damage.

Diagnosis- Diagnosis of UTIs involves a combination of clinical evaluation, urinalysis, urine culture, and sometimes imaging studies.

Treatment- Treatment of UTIs involves antimicrobial therapy to eradicate the causative microorganism and relieve symptoms.

Prevention- Hygiene measures, including regular perineal care, wiping from front to back after urination or bowel movements, and avoiding harsh soaps or irritants in the genital area. Adequate fluid intake promotes frequent urination and flushing of bacteria from the urinary tract.