Unit 3 Review: 1945-1960

Unit 3 Review: 1945-1960

Rise of Fascism and Militarism

• Post WWI Causes:

  • Totalitarianism rose from nationalist resentment due to WWI reparations and the Great Depression.

• Countries Involved:

  • Italy: Benito Mussolini led the Fascist Party; supported by war veterans and nationalists. Encouraged aggressive nationalism and militarism.

  • Germany: Adolf Hitler harnessed the resentment from the Treaty of Versailles and economic despair to promote Nazi ideology, including anti-Semitism.

  • Japan: Economic issues and nationalism drove military leaders to invade China, leading to the Second Sino-Japanese War and events like the Nanjing Massacre.

American Isolationism

• American Attitude: Nationalistic but seeking to avoid involvement in European conflicts, largely due to perceived mistakes of WWI.

• Neutrality Acts (1935-1937):

  • 1935 Act: Prohibited arms shipments to warring nations.

  • 1936 Act: Forbade loans to belligerents.

  • 1937 Act: Limited arms aid to nations involved in civil wars like Spain.

• American First Committee: Advocated continued isolation; notable speaker Charles Lindbergh spoke out against involvement in European wars.

Prelude to Another War

• Appeasement: Countries like Italy and Germany engaged in territorial expansion without challenge, softening relationships with Hitler through agreements (e.g., the Munich Agreement).

• Roosevelt's Quarantine Speech: Recognized the dangers of fascism but public isolationism remained strong.

• US Military Preparedness: FDR pushed for increased arms, knowing America might eventually need to defend itself.

Outbreak of War and Roosevelt Changes Policies

• Invasion of Poland (1939): Hitler's surprise invasion provoked Britain and France to declare war, marking the start of WWII.

• Blitzkrieg Strategy: Germany's swift tactic combining aerial bombardment and armored vehicles leading to rapid victories in Western Europe.

• Shifts in US Policy: Roosevelt began sending aid to Britain, emphasizing military preparedness, and adopting policies like 'Cash and Carry' to support allies without direct conflict.

The War in Europe: 1941-1942

• Major Shift: After entering the war, the US focused on defeating Germany first, diminishing the immediate threat from Japan.

• Key Alliances: Allied Powers included the US, Britain, and the USSR, working together against fascism in Europe.

World War II: Mobilization

• Impact on Society: Massive mobilization transformed American society, requiring ramped-up production, research, and labor.

• Federal Government Actions: Established agencies to coordinate war efforts, such as the War Production Board and the Office of War Mobilization.

• Economic Boom: Federal spending increased dramatically, stimulating industry and leading to nearly full employment by 1944.

• Social Changes: Migration patterns shifted as people moved to jobs in industrial sectors, significantly impacting demographics and urban planning.

• Women and Minorities: Increased participation in the workforce, with significant contributions from women, African Americans, and other minorities to the war effort.

Societal Impact of the War

• Mass Migration: Labor demands led to large migrations, notably of African Americans and women.

• Civil Rights Movements: The war effort and resultant social changes laid groundwork for the civil rights movement post-war.

The Military Contributions of the US

• Fighting Japan: Key victories like Midway marked turning points in the Pacific. Island-hopping strategy aimed to reclaim territory from Japanese control.

• Atomic Bomb: Japan's surrender was hastened by the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, concluding the war.

Post-War Diplomacy and the Cold War

• Post-War Tensions: Despite shared victory, the US and USSR held conflicting ideologies, leading to the onset of the Cold War.

• Yalta Conference: Divided Germany into occupation zones, sowing seeds of tension over the future of Eastern Europe.

• Truman Doctrine & Containment: Preventing the spread of communism became a cornerstone of US foreign policy.

Social and Economic Changes in Post-War America

• Economic Growth: The GI Bill assisted millions of returning veterans influencing the housing market and shaping the middle class.

• Civil Rights Movement: Challenges to racial segregation gained momentum, with significant milestones such as Brown v. Board of Education and the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

• Women in the Workforce: Post-war economic shifts brought more women into the workforce, setting the stage for future social change.

Culture and Society in the 1950s

• Consumerism: Growth of television as a central cultural influence alongside the rise of consumerism, reflecting conformity.

• Rising Suburbanization: Post-war economic growth led to mass movement from cities to suburbs, reshaping social landscapes.

• Civil Rights and Resistance: Early civil rights activism laid the foundations for future achievements against deeply entrenched racial discrimination.

Conclusion

• Legacy of WWII and Early Cold War: The transformation of American society during this period set the stage for future civil rights advancements and the broader geopolitical landscape.

On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, a naval base in Hawaii. This attack led to significant loss of life and damage to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The following day, December 8, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed Congress, calling the date "a day that will live in infamy." The attack prompted the United States to formally enter World War II, declaring war on Japan and marking a major turning point in the conflict.

The Truman Doctrine was a U.S. policy established in 1947 aimed at containing the spread of communism. It stated that the United States would support countries that were threatened by Soviet expansion or internal communist uprisings. Specifically, it provided military and economic assistance to help Greece and Turkey, which were facing pressures from communist movements. This policy marked a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy, indicating a commitment to intervene in international conflicts to prevent the spread of communism during the Cold War.

The Berlin Airlift was primarily caused by the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in June 1948. This blockade was an attempt to exert control over the entire city and prevent Allied access to West Berlin, following the division of Germany into East and West after World War II. In response, the United States and its allies initiated the Berlin Airlift to supply West Berlin with essential goods, including food and fuel.

The airlift operated by flying thousands of cargo planes into West Berlin over a period of nearly a year, delivering supplies to sustain the city’s population. Allied aircraft flew in approximately 277,000 flights, delivering over 2.3 million tons of supplies during the operation.

The success of the airlift was attributed to several factors: effective planning and coordination among the Allies, the determination of Allied forces to support the people of West Berlin, and the logistical efficiency of the airlift operations. The endeavor showcased the resolve of the Western powers against Soviet aggression and reinforced the commitment to contain communism during the early stages of the Cold War.

The Soviet Union reacted to the establishment of NATO in 1949 with significant concern and opposition. They viewed NATO as a military threat and a direct challenge to their sphere of influence in Eastern Europe. In response, the USSR strengthened its own military alliances and increased its influence over Eastern European countries. This move led to the formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955, which unified several communist countries under a collective defense agreement mirroring NATO. The Warsaw Pact was aimed at countering NATO's military presence and assuring mutual defense among its member states, which included the Soviet Union and seven Eastern Bloc nations: Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania. The creation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact intensified the division of Europe, symbolizing the broader geopolitical tensions of the Cold War

Several specific events contributed to heightened fears regarding the spread of communism during the early Cold War period:

1. The Russian Revolution (1917): The Bolshevik Revolution established a communist regime in Russia, raising alarms in the West about the potential for revolution in other countries.

2. Formation of the Soviet Union (1922): The consolidation of power under the Soviet government promoted communist ideology, intimidating nations and leading to a broader anti-communist sentiment.

3. The Red Scare (1919-1920): In the United States, a wave of paranoia about communism resulted in the Red Scare, marked by government crackdowns on suspected radicals, labor unions, and immigrants.

4. World War II Aftermath: The post-war struggles in Eastern Europe led to Soviet expansionism, establishing communist governments in several countries, which alarmed Western nations and fueled the belief in a communist threat.

5. The Korean War (1950-1953): North Korea's invasion of South Korea was perceived as a manifestation of communist aggression, leading to U.S. military involvement and further entrenching anti-communist sentiments.

6. The Espionage Cases: High-profile espionage cases, such as those of Alger Hiss and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, suggested that communism had infiltrated American institutions, intensifying public fear and suspicion.

7. McCarthyism (1950s): Senator Joseph McCarthy's aggressive investigations and accusations during the early 1950s heightened fears of communist infiltration in the U.S. government and society, leading to widespread paranoia and social divisions.
   These events created a pervasive atmosphere of fear and suspicion regarding communism, shaping U.S. domestic and foreign policies during the Cold War.

Before McCarthyism, the US government investigated suspected communists through several significant events and policies:

1. The Espionage Act of 1917: This law was implemented during World War I, providing the government with broad powers to suppress dissent and investigate individuals perceived as threats, particularly those allegedly linked to communism.

2. The Palmer Raids (1919-1920): Under Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, the federal government conducted a series of raids targeting radical left organizations and individuals. Thousands were arrested, many without proper warrants, leading to public outrage over civil rights violations.

3. The Red Scare (1919-1920): Heightened fears of communism following the Russian Revolution led to widespread government crackdowns on suspected radicals. This period saw increased scrutiny of labor unions, socialist groups, and immigrants.

4. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Activity: The FBI, founded in 1908, increased its surveillance on suspected subversives, particularly during the 1930s and 1940s. Agents collected information on communist organizations and individuals, escalating during World War II.

5. House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC): Established in 1938, HUAC held hearings to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities among citizens, particularly targeting communists and leftist organizations. Its investigations drew significant public attention and created a culture of fear.

6. Smith Act of 1940: This act made it illegal to advocate for the violent overthrow of the government, allowing the government to prosecute leading members of the Communist Party and other leftist groups.

These efforts laid the groundwork for the more aggressive actions taken during the McCarthy era, creating an environment of suspicion and paranoia towards communism before McCarthy's rise to prominence.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were American citizens accused of espionage during the Cold War. They were suspected of providing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, which intensified fears of communist infiltration within the United States.

They were arrested in 1950 and put on trial in 1951. The prosecution's case relied heavily on testimony from co-conspirators and interrogations, as well as controversial evidence. Despite claiming their innocence, the Rosenbergs were convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage in March 1951.

On June 19, 1953, they were executed in the electric chair, becoming the first American civilians to be put to death for espionage during peacetime. Their execution generated significant controversy and debate over the fairness of their trial and the extent of the evidence against them.

Their story is closely connected to the Second Red Scare, a period marked by heightened fears of communism and widespread paranoia about subversive elements in American society. The Rosenberg case fueled these fears and became emblematic of the anti-communist sentiment prevalent in the early 1950s, leading to discussions about civil liberties and the potential for government overreach in the pursuit of national security. Their execution is often regarded as a pivotal moment in the history of the Cold War, reflecting the tension between American democratic values and the fear of communism.

Joseph McCarthy was a United States Senator from Wisconsin who became a prominent figure during the early Cold War, particularly known for his role in the Second Red Scare. He rose to national attention in the early 1950s by making accusations of communist infiltration in the U.S. government and other institutions.

• Political Career: McCarthy was elected to the Senate in 1946 and quickly gained a reputation for his aggressive and confrontational style.

• Anti-Communist Campaign: He claimed to have a list of communists working in the State Department, although he never publicly disclosed these names or provided substantial evidence for his claims. His allegations led to widespread fear and paranoia regarding communism in American society.

• McCarthyism: The term "McCarthyism" is used to describe the practice of making unfounded accusations and the intense anti-communist sentiments that characterized this period. McCarthy led investigations into alleged communist activities, often violating civil liberties in the process.

• Downfall: His influence waned after the televised Army-McCarthy hearings in 1954, where he was seen as bullying witnesses, which turned public opinion against him. He was eventually censured by the Senate for his conduct and lost much of his support.

• Legacy: McCarthy's actions left a lasting impact on American political life, fostering a culture of fear and suspicion regarding communism that affected many innocent lives and careers.

The Second Red Scare had significant impacts on individual people and the country as a whole:

1. Individual Impacts

• Damaged Lives and Careers: Many individuals lost their jobs, faced social ostracism, or had their reputations destroyed. People were often blacklisted in their professions, particularly in entertainment and education, due to perceived communist ties.

• Fear and Paranoia: The culture of paranoia created a climate where individuals feared being accused of communism, leading to widespread anxiety and self-censorship. People were often reluctant to express their political beliefs or engage in activism.

• Legal Repercussions: There were numerous arrests and trials of individuals accused of communism or having communist sympathies, resulting in harsh penalties, including imprisonment.

• Civil Liberties Violations: The government conducted extensive surveillance on citizens, leading to violations of privacy and civil rights as individuals were monitored for suspected disloyalty.

2. National Impacts

• Political Climate: The Second Red Scare reinforced hyper-partisan divisions in American politics and solidified anti-communism as a dominant ideology, affecting policymaking and political discourse.

• Legislation and Government Actions: Policies like the McCarran Internal Security Act (1950), which aimed to identify and manage individuals deemed subversive, reflected a national commitment to combat perceived communist threats, often at the expense of civil liberties.

• Cultural Impact: The scare permeated popular culture, leading to the production of films, literature, and media that reinforced anti-communist sentiments. Propaganda portrayed communism as an existential threat to American values.

• Public Trust Erosion: The aggressive tactics of McCarthyism and government interrogations led to a general erosion of trust in the government and institutions, as citizens became skeptical of both government intentions and their fellow citizens.

• Long-Term Consequences: The effects of the Second Red Scare continued beyond the 1950s, influencing future generations' perceptions of communism, civil rights, and government power, and shaping American foreign policy during the Cold War.

The Second Red Scare left a profound and lasting imprint on American society, affecting the trajectory of civil liberties and political culture in the United States for decades to come.

The first country to successfully launch a satellite into outer space was the Soviet Union with the launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957. This landmark event marked the beginning of the space age as it was the world's first artificial satellite.

In terms of sending animals into space, the Soviet Union also led this effort. They sent the first living creature, a dog named Laika, into orbit aboard Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957, shortly after the launch of Sputnik 1.

The first human to travel into space was also from the Soviet Union. Yuri Gagarin completed one orbit around the Earth aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, making him the first person to go into outer space and return safely.

The United States, the second country to enter the space race, responded to the Soviet Union's advancements in several significant ways:

1. Increased Funding for Space Programs: Following the launch of Sputnik, the U.S. government increased funding for space research and programs, leading to the establishment of NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration) in 1958 to oversee the nation's space exploration efforts.

2. Development of New Technologies: The U.S. accelerated the development of satellite technology and military missile systems to enhance its capabilities and counter the perceived technological gap with the Soviet Union.

3. Raising Public Awareness: The launch of Sputnik sparked widespread media coverage and public concern over America's technological standing. The U.S. government initiated educational campaigns to promote science and mathematics in schools with the goal of fostering a new generation of scientists and engineers.

4. The Space Race: The U.S. engaged in a competitive race against the Soviet Union to achieve significant milestones in space exploration, such as human spaceflight and lunar exploration. This culminated in the Apollo program, which ultimately landed astronauts on the Moon in 1969.

5. National Security Perspectives: The Soviet space achievements heightened fears about national security, leading to increased military spending and the development of policies to counteract perceived threats from the Soviet Union in various domains, including space and missile technology.

6. Formation of Alliances: To bolster its position in the space race, the U.S. sought to strengthen alliances with its NATO partners and other countries, establishing collaborative efforts in space research and exploration.

Overall, the U.S. response was characterized by a combination of strategic urgency, technological innovation, and a commitment to asserting its prominence in global space efforts, which shaped the trajectory of space exploration for decades to come.

1. Launch of Sputnik 1 (October 4, 1957): The Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, marking a significant milestone in the space race and raising concerns in the United States about technological inferiority.

2. Apollo 11 Moon Landing (July 20, 1969): NASA successfully landed astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, representing a monumental achievement for the United States in the space race, showcasing its technological

The end of World War II led to significant changes for women who had been enlisted in the military or working in wartime industries.

• Return to Traditional Roles: Many women who had taken on roles in military service or industrial jobs were encouraged to return to traditional domestic roles as homemakers, reflecting societal expectations of the time.

• Job Losses: With returning male veterans taking back jobs, women often faced layoffs or were pushed out of their positions, leading to increased competition for the limited jobs available.

• Shift in Societal Expectations: Despite the push for women to return home, many women gained a sense of independence and confidence from their wartime experiences. Some began to challenge the traditional gender roles that had been reinforced during peacetime.

• Long-Term Changes: The war period laid the groundwork for future movements advocating for women's rights and equality in the workforce, contributing to the rise of feminism in the following decades.

The Servicemen's Readjustment Act, commonly known as the GI Bill of Rights, was enacted in 1944 to provide a range of benefits to returning World War II veterans. Its key components included:

• Education Benefits: The GI Bill covered tuition and fees for veterans attending college, university, vocational, and technical schools, making higher education more accessible.

• Housing Assistance: It provided money for housing, which helped veterans transition into civilian life and stimulated the housing market.

• Loan Guarantees: The Act offered loan guarantees for veterans seeking to purchase homes or start businesses, facilitating economic stability and growth.

• Unemployment Compensation: It included provisions for unemployment benefits to assist veterans during their transition to civilian employment.

  Overall, the GI Bill significantly impacted American society by enabling millions of veterans to gain education and housing, which contributed to the expansion of the middle class and the post-war economic boom.

The application of the GI Bill, while providing numerous benefits to returning World War II veterans, had significant limitations based on gender and race that affected its accessibility and impact:

• Gender Limitations:

  • Women Veterans: Although women served in the military and the workforce during the war, societal norms encouraged many to return to traditional roles as homemakers.

  • Limited Access to Benefits: Many women did not fully benefit from the GI Bill's educational and vocational programs due to biases in favor of male veterans, resulting in fewer educational scholarships and job training initiatives available to them.

  • Disparities in Work Opportunities: After the war, women faced employment discrimination and were often pushed out of industry jobs as men returned, limiting their ability to utilize housing and job-related benefits.

• Race Limitations:

  • Discriminatory Practices: Racial segregation in institutions often meant that Black and other minority veterans faced barriers in accessing educational benefits and job training, frequently being restricted to lower-quality institutions.

  • Unequal Employment Opportunities: Racial discrimination in the labor market limited the ability of minority veterans to find good-paying jobs, reducing the overall impact of the GI Bill on their economic advancement.

  • Housing Discrimination: Many Black veterans encountered obstacles in securing loans under the GI Bill due to redlining practices and discriminatory lending policies, further perpetuating racial inequality in home ownership and wealth accumulation.

Overall, these limitations revealed systemic biases within the GI Bill's implementation, which resulted in a disparity in benefits and opportunities for different genders and racial groups, shaping social and economic inequalities that persisted post-war.

After World War II, the economy faced several struggles that significantly affected Americans:

• Transition to Peacetime Economy: The shift from a wartime to a peacetime economy created instability as industries that had flourished during the war had to adjust to reduced demand for military goods.

• Inflation: A surge in demand for consumer products, combined with tight supply chains, led to rising prices, creating inflation that reduced purchasing power for many Americans.

• Unemployment: As soldiers returned home and resumed civilian life, the influx of workers into the job market caused unemployment rates to rise, especially for women who had taken on wartime roles.

• Housing Shortages: The GI Bill and increased demand for housing resulted in significant shortages, leading to rising home prices and rent, which placed additional financial burdens on families.

• Labor Strikes: Discontent with wages and working conditions led to a wave of labor strikes as workers sought better compensation, further disrupting economic stability.

• Consumer Debt: Many Americans turned to credit to finance spending, leading to growing personal debt as families attempted to maintain their standards of living amid economic challenges.
  These economic struggles collectively contributed to a climate of uncertainty for American families, influencing their buying habits, living conditions, and overall quality of life as they navigated the post

The Fair Deal, proposed by President Harry S. Truman, aimed to address several key problems in American society following World War II:

• Economic Inequality: The Fair Deal sought to reduce income disparity among Americans by promoting economic opportunities through affordable housing, a higher minimum wage, and expanded social security benefits.

• Health Care Accessibility: Truman aimed to advance health care for all Americans, advocating for national health insurance to provide better access and affordability.

• Civil Rights: The Fair Deal called for civil rights reforms, including anti-discrimination legislation, to address racial inequalities that persisted in American society.

• Improvement of Labor Standards: It aimed to strengthen labor rights and improve working conditions, thus supporting workers' rights to unionize and negotiate.

Despite its goals, many opposed the Fair Deal for several reasons:

• Political Opposition: Many conservative lawmakers resisted the Fair Deal agenda, viewing it as an extension of New Deal policies which they deemed as government overreach.

• Fear of Socialism: Critics perceived the Fair Deal's policies as leaning towards socialism, fearing expanded government intervention in the economy and individual lives.

• Economic Concerns: Some argued that the proposed measures could lead to increased taxes and government spending, which they believed would hurt economic growth.

• Contention Over Civil Rights: Opposition also stemmed from resistance to civil rights reforms, with many Southern politicians and citizens unwilling to support measures that threatened segregation and the status quo.

The 1950s were characterized by significant economic growth and social changes that contributed to a boom period in the United States:

• Economic Expansion: After World War II, the U.S. economy experienced a surge, characterized by high levels of consumer spending, rising incomes, and overall economic prosperity.

• Post-War Consumerism: The demand for consumer goods skyrocketed, as families sought to purchase new appliances, cars, and homes, driven by the GI Bill and increased availability of credit.

• Suburbanization: A mass movement from urban areas to suburban neighborhoods occurred, supported by affordable housing and the construction of interstate highways, leading to new communities and lifestyles.

• Job Growth and Low Unemployment: The economy witnessed stable job growth, with low unemployment rates, as industries expanded to meet increasing consumer demands.

• Technological Advancements: Innovations in manufacturing, technology, and communication, including television and automotive technologies, fueled economic growth and transformed daily life.

• Cultural Shift: The rise of a leisure-oriented culture, characterized by the popularity of television and consumer goods, contributed to a sense of prosperity and a collective American identity.
  These factors combined to create a vibrant post-war economy that marked the 1950s as a notable boom period in American history.