Adolescent Development week 4

4.0 | Culture

By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

• Define and explain the role of culture in shaping adolescent development, including variations across Western, non-Western, and Indigenous contexts.

• Describe the impact of religious and spiritual beliefs on adolescent identity, behaviour, and moral reasoning, and understand how these beliefs may shift during adolescence.

• Compare key theories of moral development, including those of Piaget, Kohlberg, Bandura, and Jensen, and evaluate their relevance to diverse adolescent experiences.

• Identify key socialising influences on moral development, including family practices, school environments, and cultural norms.

4.1 | How do Cultural Beliefs Shape Adolescence?

Role of Culture

Culture can be defined as the shared system of beliefs, values, norms, customs, behaviours, and artifacts that a group of people use to interpret and engage with the world. It is transmitted across generations and influences nearly every dimension of life, including:

• Language

• Social roles

• Family structures

• Educational expectations

In the context of development, culture provides the backdrop against which human growth unfolds. It plays a particularly influential role during adolescence, a time when individuals are actively forming their identities and navigating shifting social roles. Culture helps shape behaviour, influence developmental milestones, and guide adolescents' aspirations and worldviews.

Culture as a Context for Development

• Culture provides the social, psychological, and environmental context for adolescent development

• It influences both:

  • External behaviours – how adolescents act in public and private settings

  • Internal processes – how they think, feel, and reason morally

• Identity formation is guided by cultural messages about what it means to be a “successful” or “good” person

  • Western cultures may highlight self-expression and choice

  • Collectivist cultures may emphasise honouring family obligations and community cohesion

• Adolescents learn these values through:

  • Parents and extended family

  • School curricula and teacher expectations

  • Media and peer group norms

Culture and Developmental Timing

Culture also influences the timing and expression of key developmental transitions during adolescence. The onset and duration of adolescence can differ depending on cultural norms related to:

• Education

• Work responsibilities

• Family obligations

Some cultures promote early independence, while others emphasise interdependence and extended family involvement. These cultural expectations affect:

• The way adolescents explore their identities

• The nature of their peer relationships

• How they approach moral and social decision-making

Adolescents also learn through social interactions shaped by cultural traditions and practices. The behaviours and feedback provided by parents, teachers, and peers are all embedded within cultural frameworks that reinforce certain norms and values.

Multifaceted Nature of Culture

The influence of culture on adolescent development is dynamic and multifaceted, spanning multiple institutions such as:

• Schools

• Religious organisations

• Media outlets

• Community networks

Adolescents in multicultural or immigrant contexts may experience cultural conflict or navigate bicultural identity development. This can offer enriching experiences but may also introduce challenges related to:

• Identity negotiation

• Social expectations

• Sense of belonging

Cultural messages received through education, community interactions, and media shape adolescents’ moral values, goals, and worldviews. As a result, a complete understanding of adolescent development requires attention to the interaction between culture, psychology, and social environment. This intersection helps explain the diversity of developmental experiences and outcomes across global contexts.

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Culture: Refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, behaviours, and artifacts that shape how a group understands and interacts with the world; transmitted across generations.

• Cultural influence on development: Culture provides the social and psychological context that shapes adolescents’ behaviour, identity, cognition, and emotional expression.

• Developmental milestones and transitions: The timing and meaning of adolescence vary across cultures, influenced by expectations around autonomy, education, work, and family roles.

• Social learning in cultural contexts: Adolescents learn cultural values and behaviours through interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and community members.

• Bicultural and multicultural development: Adolescents in diverse cultural settings may develop bicultural identities, navigating both cultural enrichment and challenges like conflict or marginalisation.

4.2 | Religious Beliefs

Religion is broadly defined as an organised system of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols that facilitate a sense of connection to the sacred or transcendent. It often involves shared traditions, institutions, and communal participation (Park, 2017). In contrast:

• Religiousness refers to the extent to which individuals internalise and participate in the practices and beliefs of a particular religion, such as:

  • Attending services

  • Praying

  • Following religious teachings (King & Boyatzis, 2015)

• Spirituality is typically more personal and individualised, describing a sense of connection to something greater than oneself. It may or may not be tied to formal religion (Hill et al., 2000)

These distinctions become especially relevant during adolescence, a developmental stage marked by increasing autonomy, identity exploration, and cognitive complexity. As adolescents reflect critically on the worldviews they’ve inherited, some may:

• Maintain strong religious identification

• Shift toward a more personal spirituality

• Disengage from religious frameworks entirely

Religion and Moral Development

Religious beliefs have long been associated with moral development in adolescence, often promoting values such as:

• Compassion

• Honesty

• Forgiveness

• Respect (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Morris, 2013)

Research shows that adolescents with higher levels of religiousness tend to:

• Engage in more prosocial behaviours, including altruism and anonymous helping

• Show greater compliance with moral norms

• Be less likely to engage in antisocial or risky behaviours, such as substance use or delinquency (Carlo et al., 2010; Padilla-Walker et al., 2012)

Religious adolescents also report higher levels of gratitude and forgiveness, which are linked to:

• Greater life satisfaction

• Lower depressive symptoms (Froh et al., 2009; Lambert et al., 2012)

In this way, religion can support the internalisation of moral values and the development of self-regulation, which are essential for healthy adolescent functioning.

Social Contexts and Identity Formation

Beyond personal beliefs, religious communities serve as important socialising environments for adolescents. Involvement in religious institutions can provide:

• Opportunities for moral reflection, service learning, and identity development

• Access to social support, mentorship, and reinforcement of familial and cultural values (Hart et al., 2014)

Participation in religious activities often promotes a sense of belonging and purpose, especially when aligned with parental and community values (Flanagan & Faison, 2001).

For example:

• Adolescents involved in religiously-affiliated volunteerism tend to report:

  • Higher academic achievement

  • Stronger prosocial commitments

  • Greater identity development (Crocetti et al., 2012)

• Among Mexican American adolescents, religiosity is positively associated with:

  • Familism (emphasis on family loyalty)

  • Prosocial orientation (Calderón-Tena et al., 2011)

Questioning and Reshaping Religious Beliefs

Adolescence also brings developmental changes that can prompt reflection or re-evaluation of religious beliefs. Cognitive advances during this time foster:

• More abstract thinking

• Increased capacity for critical evaluation of religious doctrines (Kohlberg, 1986; Walker et al., 1995)

This often coincides with a decline in religiousness during adolescence and emerging adulthood, as individuals begin to prioritise:

• Autonomy

• Self-expression

• Personal meaning-making (Eagan et al., 2014)

Many adolescents may disengage from institutional religion while still maintaining a private spirituality, or they may reconstruct their values based on new experiences. Challenges may also arise when religious teachings conflict with aspects of emerging identity—such as sexual orientation—or when navigating increasingly diverse and pluralistic social environments (Narváez & Gleason, 2013).

Parenting practices play a significant role in how adolescents manage these changes:

• Inductive discipline and open communication are associated with greater moral identity

• Coercive or dogmatic approaches may lead to resistance or religious disengagement (Patrick & Gibbs, 2012)

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Religion: An organised system of beliefs, rituals, and practices aimed at fostering connection to the sacred or transcendent, often tied to shared traditions and institutions.

• Religiousness and spirituality: Religiousness refers to participation in organised religion and its practices, while spirituality denotes a personal sense of connection to something greater, which may exist outside formal religion.

• Moral development and behaviour: Higher levels of adolescent religiousness are associated with prosocial behaviours like helping and forgiveness, and lower engagement in risky or antisocial behaviours.

• Religious communities: Provide adolescents with opportunities for social support, identity development, and value reinforcement through structured activities and mentorship.

• Questioning and change in beliefs: Adolescents often re-evaluate religious teachings as cognitive capacities grow, potentially leading to declining religiousness or shifts toward personal spirituality.

4.3 | Cultural Beliefs

Cultural Beliefs and Adolescent Development

Cultural beliefs refer to the shared values, customs, understandings, and practices that guide how members of a cultural group interpret the world and behave within it (Matsumoto & Juang, 2017). These beliefs are embedded in:

• Family structures

• Social roles

• Gender expectations

• Life transitions, including adolescence

During adolescence—a period marked by identity formation, growing autonomy, and social integration—cultural beliefs serve as both a lens for interpreting experience and a map for guiding behaviour (Arnett, 2008). They influence key developmental domains such as:

• Parenting styles

• Educational aspirations

• Peer interactions

• Attitudes toward authority

In this way, cultural frameworks help shape how adolescents understand themselves and their place in the world.

Western Cultural Beliefs: Emphasis on Individualism

In many Western cultures—including Australia, North America, and Western Europe—cultural beliefs tend to prioritise individualism. This orientation emphasises:

• Personal autonomy

• Self-expression

• Self-efficacy (Triandis, 1995)

Adolescents in these settings are often encouraged to:

• Develop a strong personal identity

• Make independent decisions

• Pursue self-chosen goals

These values are reflected in authoritative parenting styles, which combine warmth and support with encouragement of independence. Such parenting has been linked to positive outcomes, including:

• Higher self-esteem

• Greater academic motivation

• Stronger identity achievement (Steinberg & Silk, 2002)

For instance, it is common in Western contexts for adolescents to move out of the family home in early adulthood, reflecting a cultural norm of independence. Western developmental frameworks also often view adolescence as a distinct phase of exploration and identity experimentation, consistent with the “storm and stress” model (Arnett, 2006).

Non-Western Cultural Beliefs: Emphasis on Collectivism

In many non-Western cultures—including regions of Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America—collectivism is a central cultural value. Collectivism prioritises:

• Family obligation

• Social harmony

• Interdependence (Kagitcibasi, 2005)

In these contexts, adolescents are often socialised to align their behaviour with family expectations and group goals rather than personal desires. Examples include:

• In East Asian cultures, filial piety and academic achievement are emphasised, with success seen as a way to honour the family (Chen & Farruggia, 2002)

• In Latin American cultures, familism encourages emotional closeness and loyalty, contributing to lower risk behaviour and strong psychosocial support (Calderón-Tena et al., 2011)

• In African cultures, rites of passage mark the transition to adulthood and stress responsibility, resilience, and community participation

Parenting in these cultures often leans toward authoritarian or directive styles, which may yield positive developmental outcomes when combined with relational support and cultural coherence (Chao, 1994).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural Beliefs

In Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, beliefs are rooted in:

• Kinship networks

• Community responsibilities

• Spirituality

• Connection to land (Country)

Adolescents are embedded in extended family systems and learn through:

• Storytelling

• Ceremony

• Observation and participation in cultural practices (Dudgeon et al., 2014)

Adolescence is viewed not as a separate life stage, but as part of a continuous cultural journey, closely tied to collective identity and responsibility. Key practices include:

• Gender-specific education through “men’s business” and “women’s business”, which involves learning cultural laws and responsibilities

• Strengthening identity through connection to Country, which fosters both spiritual wellbeing and cultural belonging (Gee et al., 2014)

However, the impacts of colonisation, forced child removals, and cultural disruption have led to intergenerational trauma and systemic disparities in health and education. In response, culturally responsive support programs that affirm Indigenous knowledge systems and promote cultural identity have been shown to enhance:

• Resilience

• Positive adolescent development (Ware, 2013)

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Cultural beliefs: Shared values, customs, and practices that shape how individuals understand the world and guide behaviour within a cultural group.

• Individualism: A cultural orientation common in many Western societies that emphasises autonomy, personal achievement, and self-expression during adolescent development.

• Collectivism: A cultural orientation common in many non-Western societies that values family loyalty, social harmony, and fulfilling group responsibilities.

• Parenting styles across cultures: Authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes in individualistic cultures, while directive or authoritarian parenting may function effectively in collectivist contexts when embedded in strong relational support.

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander beliefs: Emphasise kinship, spiritual connection to land, and cultural continuity, viewing adolescence as part of a lifelong process of cultural learning and identity formation.

4.4 | Moral Development

Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

Jean Piaget proposed one of the earliest cognitive-developmental theories of moral development, outlining two major stages:

• Heteronomous morality (typically ages 4–7):

  • Rules are seen as fixed and unchangeable, handed down by authority figures.

  • Moral judgments are based on consequences rather than intentions.

  • Example: A child might think breaking 10 cups by accident is “naughtier” than breaking one cup on purpose.

• Autonomous morality (emerging around age 10+):

  • Rules are understood as social agreements that can be changed by consensus.

  • Judgments focus on intentions and fairness.

  • Example: An adolescent would consider whether harm was intended when making a moral judgment.

Piaget shifted attention from external behaviour to internal reasoning but has been critiqued for underestimating children’s moral abilities and for relying heavily on hypothetical scenarios (Gibbs, 2013). The theory also lacked consideration of cultural influences, limiting its global applicability.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Building on Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, consisting of six stages across three levels:

1. Preconventional Level (typically up to age 9)

   • Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation
     → Morality is about avoiding punishment.
     → Example: “Stealing is wrong because you’ll get in trouble.”

   • Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
     → Morality is guided by self-interest and reciprocal benefit.
     → Example: “If you help me, I’ll help you.”

2. Conventional Level (typically early adolescence)

   • Stage 3: Good boy/good girl orientation
     → Emphasis on social approval and relationships.
     → Example: Not cheating to avoid disappointing others.

   • Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining orientation
     → Laws and rules are upheld to maintain social order.
     → Example: “Speeding is wrong because laws exist to protect people.”

3. Postconventional Level (adolescence and adulthood, though not all reach this stage)

   • Stage 5: Social contract orientation
     → Rules are flexible and should promote justice and individual rights.
     → Example: Supporting civil disobedience against unjust laws.

   • Stage 6: Universal ethical principles orientation
     → Morality is based on universal human rights, regardless of law.
     → Example: Hiding a refugee because it is morally right, even if illegal.

Kohlberg’s model has been influential in education and research but has drawn critiques for being:

• Culturally biased (Western-centric)

• Overly focused on justice while neglecting values like care and loyalty (Gilligan, 1982)

• Too rigid, as individuals often reason at multiple stages depending on context (Walker, 2004)

Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Development

Proposed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasises the interaction between:

• Personal factors

• Behaviour

• Environmental influences

Two key constructs are:

• Moral competence – knowledge of moral rules

• Moral performance – actual moral behaviour, which may differ from competence

Adolescents learn moral behaviour by observing models (e.g., parents, peers, media) and by developing self-regulation, influenced by:

• Anticipated self-evaluative emotions, such as guilt or pride (Bandura, 2002)

• Internalised moral standards

For example, a teen may refrain from bullying because they’ve learned that it’s wrong and would feel guilty if they did it.

This theory is especially relevant in adolescence due to:

• Rising peer influence

• Increased autonomy and identity development

A strength of the model is its real-world applicability, acknowledging the gap between moral reasoning and behaviour. However, it lacks a clear developmental framework (Killen & Smetana, 2015).

Worldviews Theory of Moral Development

Developed by Jensen (2008, 2011), this theory offers a cultural and pluralistic alternative to universal, stage-based models. It posits that morality is shaped by culturally embedded worldviews, which reflect broad belief systems about how to live a good life.

Three key moral ethics guide reasoning:

1. Ethic of Autonomy – individual rights and personal freedom

2. Ethic of Community – social roles, duties, and responsibilities

3. Ethic of Divinity – spiritual beliefs about sacredness and divine authority

Adolescents may draw from all three ethics depending on cultural background and context.
Example:

• A Western adolescent may focus on autonomy when deciding to come out to their parents

• A religious adolescent may prioritise divinity or community obligations

Strengths of this model include its cultural inclusivity and contextual flexibility. However, critics argue it is more descriptive than explanatory and lacks a clear developmental trajectory (Miller et al., 2012).

KEY FACTORS INFLUENCING MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Culture

Culture profoundly shapes what adolescents consider moral and how they reason about moral dilemmas. For example:

• Adolescents in individualistic cultures (e.g., Australia, the US) often prioritise autonomy, justice, and fairness (ethic of autonomy)

• Those in collectivist cultures (e.g., many Asian, African, Latin American societies) may value respect, obedience, and loyalty (ethic of community)

• In religious or spiritual contexts, moral decisions may be guided by sacred values and divine principles (ethic of divinity)

Culture also influences whether adolescents develop heteronomous or autonomous moral reasoning, shaping how they interpret authority, rules, and responsibilities.

Family and Parenting Practices

Parents shape moral development through:

• The values they model

• The disciplinary strategies they use

• The emotional climate of the home

Inductive discipline, where parents explain the consequences of actions, fosters:

• Empathy

• Guilt

• Internalisation of moral norms (Eisenberg et al., 2013)

Supportive parenting practices (e.g., warmth, secure attachment, open moral dialogue) promote:

• Moral identity

• Prosocial behaviour

Parenting styles also vary by culture. For instance:

• In collectivist contexts, authoritarian parenting may yield positive outcomes when paired with high involvement and strong family values (Chao, 1994)

Adolescents are active participants in moral development, often engaging with, questioning, and resisting moral teachings from caregivers. Still, families remain a central influence on conscience and moral behaviour.

Schools

Schools influence moral development both formally and informally:

• Formal education includes subjects like civics, ethics, and religion, which encourage reflection on justice, rights, and ethical reasoning.

• Informal socialisation occurs through:

  • Peer and teacher interactions

  • Classroom rules

  • Institutional values (Nucci & Narváez, 2008)

Positive environments that promote:

• Teacher-student relationships

• Peer collaboration

• Service learning and civic engagement

are linked to growth in moral reasoning, empathy, and social responsibility (Hart et al., 2014).
Conversely, punitive or competitive environments may undermine ethical reflection.

ASSESSMENT OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development is commonly assessed by examining how individuals:

• Reason about moral issues

• Make ethical decisions

• Behave in morally relevant situations

• Traditional Methods

• Use of hypothetical moral dilemmas (e.g., the Heinz dilemma)

• Instruments such as the:

  • Moral Judgment Interview (MJI)

  • Defining Issues Test (DIT)

These tools evaluate moral reasoning stages or levels and have shown developmental patterns during adolescence, when abstract thinking increases.

Limitations and Alternatives

Hypothetical scenarios may not reflect real-life moral behaviour. Adolescents may reason well in interviews but act differently in emotionally charged or socially complex contexts.

To address this, researchers use:

• Self-report measures of moral identity, values, or prosocial tendencies

• Daily diaries tracking real-world moral experiences

• Observations and peer/teacher reports

For instance, prosocial behaviour may be assessed by tracking how often adolescents help, share, or comfort others (Padilla-Walker & Carlo, 2007).

Emerging Approaches

There is increasing interest in integrative and contextual assessments. Adolescents face moral challenges in:

• Relationships

• Digital spaces

• Family life

• School settings

Narrative-based assessments, where adolescents describe moral dilemmas they’ve encountered, offer insights into how they interpret and resolve real-world moral problems. These approaches align with social cognitive and worldviews theories, emphasising:

• Situational influences

• Personal agency

• Cultural meaning systems

Key Concepts/Definitions

• Piaget’s theory of moral development: Proposes two stages—heteronomous morality (rule-bound and consequence-focused) and autonomous morality (intention- and fairness-based), reflecting shifts in children's reasoning.

• Kohlberg’s stages of moral development: A six-stage model grouped into preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels, focusing on justice-based reasoning that develops progressively with age and cognitive ability.

• Social cognitive theory of moral development: Highlights the role of self-regulation, moral competence, observational learning, and environmental reinforcement in shaping moral behaviour.

• Worldviews theory of moral development: Suggests moral reasoning is shaped by culturally rooted worldviews, drawing on the ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity depending on context.

• Cultural influence on moral development: Culture shapes moral priorities, such as autonomy in individualistic cultures and group loyalty in collectivist cultures, influencing how adolescents interpret right and wrong.

• Parenting and moral development: Parenting styles and practices, especially inductive discipline and emotional warmth, significantly impact adolescents’ moral identity and prosocial behaviour.

• School influence on moral development: Formal moral education and informal classroom interactions support the development of empathy, fairness, civic responsibility, and ethical reflection.

• Assessment of moral development: Typically involves analysing responses to hypothetical dilemmas using tools like the Defining Issues Test, though newer methods aim to capture real-life moral reasoning and behaviour.

• Moral reasoning vs behaviour: There is often a gap between what adolescents say is right and how they act, especially in emotionally charged or peer-influenced situations.

• Contextual approaches to assessment: Emphasise real-world moral challenges and use narrative, observational, and identity-based tools to understand how adolescents apply moral reasoning in daily life.