Let us then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and one mind.  Let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things…But every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle, We have called by different names brethren of the same principle.  We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.

Thomas Jefferson, First Inaugural Address, 1801

Definitions:

Judicial Review: the supreme court could now overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government (decided whether an act of congress or of the president was allowed by the constitution)

Strict interpretation: 

Impressment: the capturing of US sailors who the UK claimed were British citizens and forced them into the British navy.

War Hawks: A congressional election in 1810 had brought a group of

new, young Democratic-Republicans to Congress, many of them from frontier

states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Known as war hawks because of their

eagerness for war with Britain, they quickly gained significant influence in the

House of Representatives. Led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, the war-hawk members of Congress argued that war

with Britain would be the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada,

and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier.

People:

Thomas Jefferson: Following this Revolution of

1800, Thomas Jefferson, the new president, recognized the need for a smooth

and peaceful transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-

Republicans. That is why, in his inaugural address of 1801, Jefferson stressed

the popular acceptance of the basic principles of constitutional government

when he stated: “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists.”

John Marshall: Ironically, the Federalist judge who caused Jefferson the

most grief was one of his own cousins from Virginia, John Marshall. Mar-

shall had been appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during the final

months of John Adams’ presidency. He held his post for 34 years, in which

time he exerted as strong an influence on the Supreme Court as Washington

had exerted on the presidency. Marshall’s decisions in many landmark cases

generally strengthened the central government, often at the expense of states’

rights.

Aaron Burr: A Democratic-Republican caucus (closed meeting) in 1804 decided not to

nominate Aaron Burr for a second term as vice president. Burr then embarked

on a series of ventures, one of which threatened to break up the Union and

another of which resulted in the death of Alexander Hamilton.

Federalist Conspiracy  Secretly forming a political pact with some radi-

cal New England Federalists, Burr planned to win the governorship of New

York in 1804, unite that state with the New England states, and then lead this

group of states to secede from the nation. Most Federalists followed Alexander

Hamilton in opposing Burr, who was defeated in the New York election. The

conspiracy then disintegrated.

Duel with Hamilton  Angered by an insulting remark attributed to Ham-

ilton, Burr challenged the Federalist leader to a duel and fatally shot him.

Hamilton’s death in 1804 deprived the Federalists of their last great leader and

earned Burr the enmity of many.

Trial for Treason  By 1806, Burr’s intrigues had turned westward with

a plan to take Mexico from Spain and possibly unite it with Louisiana under

his rule. Learning of the conspiracy, Jefferson ordered Burr’s arrest and trial

for treason. Presiding at the trial was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John

Marshall, a long-time adversary of Jefferson. A jury acquitted Burr, basing its

decision on Marshall’s narrow definition of treason and the lack of witnesses

to any “overt act” by Burr.

Napoleon Bonaparte: He orchestrated the Louisiana Purchase and his war affected the United States indirectly through the disruption of trade and escalation of conflict with Britain that resulted in the War of 1812.

James Madison: Ever since leading the effort to write and ratify the Constitution, Madison was

widely viewed as a brilliant thinker. He had worked tirelessly with Jefferson

in developing the Democratic-Republican Party. On the other hand, he was a

weak public speaker, possessed a stubborn temperament, and lacked Jeffer-

son’s political skills. With Jefferson’s backing, Madison was nominated for

president by a caucus of congressional Democratic-Republicans.

Toussaint L’Ouverture: led the Haitian Revolution against France

Tecumseh & The Prophet: In an effort to defend Shawnee lands from

further encroachment, Tecumseh (a warrior) and his brother Tenskwatana,

or the Prophet (a religious leader), attempted to unite all of the tribes east

of the Mississippi River.

William Henry Harrison: General during the Indian American conflicts about a confederacy

Henry Clay: Led the war hawks and believed that war with Britain was the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier. 

John C. Calhoun:Led the war hawks and believed that war with Britain was the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier. 

Francis Scott Key & “The Star-Spangled Banner”:In

the summer of 1814, a British army marched through the nation’s capi-

tal, Washington, D.C., and set fire to the White House, the Capitol, and other

government buildings. The British also attempted to take Baltimore, but Fort

McHenry held out after a night’s bombardment—an event immortalized by

Francis Scott Key in the words of “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

Domestic Events:

Marbury v. Madison: The first major case decided by Mar-

shall put him in direct conflict with President Jefferson. Upon taking office,

Jefferson wanted to block the Federalist judges appointed by his predecessor, President John Adams. He ordered Secretary of State James Madison not

to deliver the commissions to those Federalists judges. One of Adams’ “mid-

night appointments,” William Marbury, sued for his commission. The case of

Marbury v. Madison went to the Supreme Court in 1803. Marshall ruled that

Marbury had a right to his commission according to the Judiciary Act passed

by Congress in 1789. However, Marshall said the Judiciary Act of 1789 had

given to the Court greater power than the Constitution allowed. Therefore, the

law was unconstitutional, and Marbury would not receive his commission.

In effect, Marshall sacrificed what would have been a small Federalist gain

(the appointment of Marbury) for a much larger, long-term judicial victory. By

ruling a law of Congress to be unconstitutional, Marshall established the doc-

trine of judicial review. From this point on, the Supreme Court would exercise

the power to decide whether an act of Congress or of the president was allowed

by the Constitution. The Supreme Court could now overrule actions of the

other two branches of the federal government.

Lewis and Clark expedition: Even before Louisiana was purchased,

Jefferson had persuaded Congress to fund a scientific exploration of the

trans-Mississippi West to be led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieuten-

ant William Clark. The Louisiana Purchase greatly increased the importance

of the expedition. Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804, crossed

the Rockies, reached the Oregon coast on the Pacific Ocean, then turned back

and completed the return journey in 1806. The benefits of the expedition were

many: greater geographic and scientific knowledge of the region, stronger U.S.

claims to the Oregon Territory, better relations with American Indians, and

more accurate maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers.

Battle of Tippecanoe: in 1811,

Harrison destroyed the Shawnee headquarters and put an end to Tecumseh’s

efforts to form an Indian confederacy.

Foreign Events:

Louisiana Purchase: The single most important achievement of these years was the acquisition by purchase of vast western lands known as the Louisiana Territory. The Louisiana Territory encompassed a large and largely unexplored tract of western land through which the Mississippi and Missouri rivers flowed. At the mouth of the Mississippi lay the territory’s most valuable property in terms of commerce—the port of New Orleans. For many years, Louisiana and New Orleans had been claimed by Spain. But in 1800, the French military and political leader Napoleon Bonaparte secretly forced Spain to give the Louisi- ana Territory back to its former owner, France. Napoleon hoped to restore the French empire in the Americas. By 1803, however, Napoleon had lost interest in this plan for two reasons: (1) he needed to concentrate French resources on fighting England and (2) a rebellion led by Toussaint l’Ouverture against French rule on the island of Santo Domingo had resulted in heavy French losses.

Barbary pirates: The first major challenge to Jefferson’s foreign policy came not from a major European power, but from the piracy practiced by the Barbary states on the North African coast. To protect U.S. merchant ships

from being seized by Barbary pirates, Presidents Washington and Adams had reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary governments. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher sum in tribute from Jefferson. Refusing to pay, Jefferson sent a small fleet of the U.S. Navy to the Mediterranean. Sporadic fighting with

Tripoli lasted for four years (1801–1805). Although the American navy did not

achieve a decisive victory, it did gain some respect and also offered a measure

of protection to U.S. vessels trading in Mediterranean waters.

Chesapeake-Leopard affair: One incident at sea especially aroused

American anger and almost led to war. In 1807, only a few miles off the coast

of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S. warship Chesapeake.

Three Americans were killed and four others were taken captive and impressed

into the British navy. Anti-British feeling ran high, and many Americans

demanded war. Jefferson, however, resorted to diplomacy and economic pres-

sure as his response to the crisis.

Embargo Act (1807): As an alternative to war, Jefferson persuaded the

Democratic-Republican majority in Congress to pass the Embargo Act in

1807. This measure prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any

foreign port. Since the United States was Britain’s largest trading partner, Jef-

ferson hoped that the British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations

rather than lose U.S. trade. The embargo, however, backfired and brought

greater economic hardship to the United States than to Britain. The British

were determined to control the seas at all costs, and they had little difficulty

substituting supplies from South America for U.S. goods. The embargo’s effect

on the U.S. economy, however, was devastating, especially for the merchant

marine and shipbuilders of New England. So bad was the depression that a

movement developed in the New England states to secede from the Union.

Recognizing that the Embargo Act had failed, Jefferson called for its repeal

in 1809 during the final days of his presidency. Even after repeal, however,

U.S. ships could trade legally with all nations except Britain and France.

Nonintercourse Act (1809): After the repeal of Jefferson’s disastrous

embargo act, Madison hoped to end economic hardship while maintaining his

country’s rights as a neutral nation. The Nonintercourse Act of 1809 provided

that Americans could now trade with all nations except Britain and France.

Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810): Economic hardships continued into 1810.

Nathaniel Macon, a member of Congress, introduced a bill that restored U.S.

trade with Britain and France. Macon’s Bill No. 2 provided, however, that if

either Britain or France formally agreed to respect U.S. neutral rights at sea,

then the United States would prohibit trade with that nation’s foe.

Upon hearing of Congress’ action, French leader

Napoleon Bonaparte announced his intention of revoking the decrees that

had violated U.S. neutral rights. Taking Napoleon at his word, Madison carried

out the terms of Macon’s Bill No. 2 by embargoing U.S. trade with Britain in

1811. However, he soon realized that Napoleon had no intention of fulfilling

his promise. The French continued to seize American merchant ships.

War of 1812:

Beginning:

• From the U.S. point of view, the pressures leading to war came from two directions: the continued violation of U.S. neutral rights at sea and troubles with the British on the western frontier.

Middle:

• “Old Ironsides”: In late 1812, the U.S. warship Constitution (nicknamed “Old Ironsides”) raised American morale by defeating and sinking a British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia. American privateers, motivated by both patriotism and profit, captured numerous British merchant ships. Offsetting these gains was the success of the British navy in establishing a blockade of the U.S. coast, which crippled trading and fishing.

• Battle of Lake Erie: Probably the most important naval engagement of the war was the 1813 Battle of Lake Erie which led the way for General William Harrison’s victory at the Battle of Thames River

• Oliver Hazard Perry: American naval Captain led and won in the Battle of Lake Erie. 

• Battle of the Thames River: General William Henry Harrison’s victory at the Battle of the Thames River (near Detroit), in which Tecumseh was killed

• Andrew Jackson: Meanwhile, U.S. troops in the South were ably commanded by General Andrew Jackson. In March 1814, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in present-day Alabama, Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek nation.

• Battle of Horseshoe Bend: In March 1814, at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in present-day Alabama, Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek nation. The victory eliminated the Indians and opened new lands to White settlers

• Creek Nation: A native american tribe that were vital British allies.

• Battle of New Orleans: A British effort to control the Mississippi River was halted at New Orleans by Jackson leading a force of frontier soldiers, free African Americans, and Creoles. The victory was impressive—but also meaningless. The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815, two weeks after a treaty ending the war had been signed in Ghent, Belgium.

• Hartford Convention: Just before the war ended, the New England states threatened to secede from the Union. Bitterly opposed to both the war and the Democratic-Republican government in Washington, radical Federalists in New England urged that the Constitution be amended and that, as a last resort, secession be voted upon. To consider these matters, a special convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. Delegates from the New England states rejected the radical calls for secession. But to limit the growing power of the Democratic-Republi- cans in the South and West, they adopted a number of proposals. One of them called for a two-thirds vote of both houses for any future declaration of war. Shortly after the convention dissolved, news came of both Jackson’s victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent. These events ended criticism of the war and further weakened the Federalists by stamping them as unpatriotic.

Ending:

• Treaty of Ghent (1814): By 1814, the British were weary of war. Having fought Napoleon for more than a decade, they now faced the prospect of maintaining the peace in Europe. At the same time, Madison’s government recognized that the Americans would be unable to win a decisive victory. American peace commissioners traveled to Ghent, Belgium, to discuss terms of peace with British diplomats. On Christmas Eve 1814, an agreement was reached. The terms halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to the prewar claimant, and recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States.The Treaty of Ghent, promptly ratified by the Senate in 1815, said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in stalemate with no gain for either side.

Document:

“It is true I am a Shawnee. My forefathers were warriors. Their son is a warrior. From them I take only my existence; from my tribe I take nothing. . . . [I] come to Governor Harrison to ask him to tear the treaty . . . but I would say to him: “‘Sir, you have liberty to return to your own country.’ “Once, nor until lately, there was no White man on this continent. . . . It then all belonged to red men. . . . Once a happy race, since made miserable by the White people, who are never contented but always encroaching. The way, and the only way, to check and to stop this evil, is for all the red men to unite in claiming a common and equal right in the land. . . . For it never was divided, but belongs to all for the use of each. For no part has a right to sell.”

—Tecumseh, Letter to Governor William Henry Harrison, August 1810

1. Tecumseh believed that which of the following would be the best way for the American Indians to respond to the desire of White settlers for land?

   1. Signing a treaty with the United States

   2. Joining the British in order to stop westward expansion 

   3. Moving westward to lands unoccupied by Americans Indians

   4. Forming a confederacy among all American Indians

2. Based on this excerpt, which of the following would Tecumseh most likely have objected to?

   1. The War of 1812

   2. The Alien and Sedition Acts

   3. British actions on the western frontier

   4. The Louisiana Purchase