SBI3U - Into the Jungle by Sean B. Carroll
Three main contributors to natural science and the theory of evolution are Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, and Henry Walter Bates
Darwin began his expedition at the age 22 from 1831-1836
Wallace began his expedition at the age of 25 from 1848 -1862
Bates began his expedition at the age of 23 from 1848 -1859
Wallace and Bates were insect-interested friends who hopes to collect the diverse specimens of the Amazon
While studying at Cambridge to become ordained, Darwin became inspired by Henslow, a professor of Botany
Darwin soon put off his studies to serve as a naturalist on a world-round journey on the Beagle
Among his travels included the Cape Verde Islands, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro
At the ports they visited, Darwin would send boxes of collected specimens home
In Argentina, Darwin found remains of a Glyptodon, Toxodon, Megatherium, Mylodon, and Glossotherium
Darwin met humans native to Tierra del Fuego, whom he described as primitive
In Valdivia, Darwin experienced an earthquake, which uplifted land, serving as an explanation as to how shells were able to reach high altitudes
Darwin theorized that corals grew around sinking land masses
Charles visited the Galapagos Islands, where he examined tortoises and birds
He was especially curious of the Galapagos birds, which had different traits based on which island they are from
Darwin was captivated by the “mystery of mysteries,” or the origin of new species
It was discovered that Darwin had encountered many new, distinct species of finches and mockingbirds on his travels
He concluded that a original species must have travelled there first, and then had undergone change
Darwin created his “Species Theory,” where species would form as a result of being able to withstand natural “checks," or obstacles, called “natural selection”
Darwin hid his theory for 20 years, as it was heretical and contrary to the Church
Alfred Russel Wallace had gone farther than any other European in the Amazon
He lost much of his work in a shipwreck, but soon returned to exploring again
Wallace resolved to explore the Malay Archipelago
After observing the grand diversity of the islands, Wallace proposed that species were connected like a branching tree, where new species come from old species
He created a principle called “Sarawak Law,” which proposed that the earth and life had evolved together
Wallace observed what were seemingly boundaries dividing species across landmasses and areas
He used his Sarawak Law to propose that certain landmasses must have been connected at some point in the past, so that the same species could populate those specific areas, while pre-existing oceans served as natural barriers
The “barrier” between the fauna of Asia and Australia was named the “Wallace Line”
Wallace was known as the founder of biogeography
Wallace theorized that the strongest species - those who could withstand the struggle of existence - would survive and continue on the population
Henry Walter Bates had spent 11 years in the Amazon, where he collected over 14 thousand species, 8 thousand of which were completely new
After seeing many species of butterflies that bore striking similarities, Bates theorized mimicry amongst species in the same area as a means of natural selection
He proposed that species would adapt to appear similar to predators or unpalatable prey to acquire safety from natural predators
The term for the imitation of an unpalatable or dangerous species is Batesian Mimicry
Eugene Dubois was an anatomist and physician who sought the “missing link” that connected humans and apes
Thomas Huxley was among the first to draw connections between humans and apes
Ernst Haeckel proposed that there was once a single-celled ancestor, and that humans only acquired speech after evolving to be upright
Dubois was motivated by these works to leave his job as a teacher and become a paleontologist
He resolved to explore the caves of Sumatra, where remains were likely to be found, and took an army position in the Dutch Indies
With little promise in Sumatra, Dubois moved on to Java, where he and his team excavated the hills, riverbanks, and caves
He discovered the Pithecanthropus erectus, the erect ape-man that served as the intermediate between apes and humans
His work was at first heavily scrutinized, but later accepted, and it even served as the basis for more excavations in Asia
Roy Chapman Andrews began working in a Natural History Museum, which led him to opportunities to explore the land and waters of Eastern Asia
Andrews resolved to explore Asia to try and find ancient humans and fauna
Andrews pitched a new plan to attempt to recreate the past history of the Asian Plateau
While on the expedition in Iren Dabasu, they discovered many mammalian and dinosaur fossils
They discovered the remains of the Baluchitherium, the tallest land mammal to ever exist
They returned with the fossils of birds, rodents, rhinoceros, and deer, as well as small creatures from the Cretaceous Period
They continued to explore the same location a year later, where they found fossilized dinosaur eggs, mammals that lived among dinosaurs,
The mammals were the missing links in mammalian evolution, showing that mammals had already split into placental and marsupial forms during the age of dinosaurs
New species were discovered, including the Velociraptor, Tarborsaurus, and Oviraptor
Andrews’ expedition landed him great recognition, as his team’s discoveries still remain a crucial point of natural history today
Walter Alvarez, a geologist, explored the ancient town of Gubbio
When examining forams (protists), he noticed larger forams in one layer, a clay layer void of forams on top, and a layer of smaller forams on top of that
This change occured at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (K-T boundary)
His father, Luis Alvarez, a physicist, along with two chemists, discovered that the levels of Iridium in the clay layer was much higher than that of the rest of the rock face
Using physics, Luis Alvarez concluded that an asteroid weighing 300 billion tons must have hit the earth to kill all the dinosaurs and leave the layer of clay
After observing the tektites and microscopic quartz grains in the Yucatan Peninsula, it was theorized that the crater struck there, causing the K-T boundary
Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer encountered a strange, five-foot fish
When she consulted J.L.B. Smith, he identified it as a Coelacanth, fish thought to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous period
The Coelacanth was lobe-finned, meaning it had limb-like fins similar to four-legged vertebrates
These fish were the ancestors of land-dwelling creatures
More Coelacanths were found in the years following, and they were dubbed “living fossils”
Tony Allison developed the notion that genetic markers, such as blood groups, would provide an insight into human relationships
He collected blood samples from tribes all over Kenya, and found that in some regions, sickle-cell carriers exceeded 20 percent
After surveying over five thousand people in East Africa, he discovered that having one copy of the sickle-cell gene (carriers) would help protect them from malaria, but having two copies would increase the fatality of malaria
Allison’s discoveries proved natural selection, as areas with frequent malaria would have more occupants with sickle-cell genes
It was also the first time natural selection could be viewed on the genetic level
With whaling becoming more popular, Norway set out to build a post on Bouvet Island
The zoologist on board, Ditlef Rustard, caught a strange-looking “crocodile fish” with colourless blood
Later, a professor of marine biology, Johan Ruud, had his interest piqued by these fish, as they were the only vertebrae without pigmentation in their blood
Ruud discovered that these fish had low oxygen-carrying capacities
Antarctic currents had prevented fish from migrating, and created a cold environment that only adapted species could survive
It was believed that their anti-freeze gene evolved from digestive enzymes
These fish had large gills, hearts, and arteries compared to other fish, allowing them to easily absorb the oxygen from the waters
The fish lack hemoglobin to help maintain a low blood viscosity in freezing waters
The icefish evolved from warm-water, red-blooded ancestors, but still contained fossil genes
Three main contributors to natural science and the theory of evolution are Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, and Henry Walter Bates
Darwin began his expedition at the age 22 from 1831-1836
Wallace began his expedition at the age of 25 from 1848 -1862
Bates began his expedition at the age of 23 from 1848 -1859
Wallace and Bates were insect-interested friends who hopes to collect the diverse specimens of the Amazon
While studying at Cambridge to become ordained, Darwin became inspired by Henslow, a professor of Botany
Darwin soon put off his studies to serve as a naturalist on a world-round journey on the Beagle
Among his travels included the Cape Verde Islands, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro
At the ports they visited, Darwin would send boxes of collected specimens home
In Argentina, Darwin found remains of a Glyptodon, Toxodon, Megatherium, Mylodon, and Glossotherium
Darwin met humans native to Tierra del Fuego, whom he described as primitive
In Valdivia, Darwin experienced an earthquake, which uplifted land, serving as an explanation as to how shells were able to reach high altitudes
Darwin theorized that corals grew around sinking land masses
Charles visited the Galapagos Islands, where he examined tortoises and birds
He was especially curious of the Galapagos birds, which had different traits based on which island they are from
Darwin was captivated by the “mystery of mysteries,” or the origin of new species
It was discovered that Darwin had encountered many new, distinct species of finches and mockingbirds on his travels
He concluded that a original species must have travelled there first, and then had undergone change
Darwin created his “Species Theory,” where species would form as a result of being able to withstand natural “checks," or obstacles, called “natural selection”
Darwin hid his theory for 20 years, as it was heretical and contrary to the Church
Alfred Russel Wallace had gone farther than any other European in the Amazon
He lost much of his work in a shipwreck, but soon returned to exploring again
Wallace resolved to explore the Malay Archipelago
After observing the grand diversity of the islands, Wallace proposed that species were connected like a branching tree, where new species come from old species
He created a principle called “Sarawak Law,” which proposed that the earth and life had evolved together
Wallace observed what were seemingly boundaries dividing species across landmasses and areas
He used his Sarawak Law to propose that certain landmasses must have been connected at some point in the past, so that the same species could populate those specific areas, while pre-existing oceans served as natural barriers
The “barrier” between the fauna of Asia and Australia was named the “Wallace Line”
Wallace was known as the founder of biogeography
Wallace theorized that the strongest species - those who could withstand the struggle of existence - would survive and continue on the population
Henry Walter Bates had spent 11 years in the Amazon, where he collected over 14 thousand species, 8 thousand of which were completely new
After seeing many species of butterflies that bore striking similarities, Bates theorized mimicry amongst species in the same area as a means of natural selection
He proposed that species would adapt to appear similar to predators or unpalatable prey to acquire safety from natural predators
The term for the imitation of an unpalatable or dangerous species is Batesian Mimicry
Eugene Dubois was an anatomist and physician who sought the “missing link” that connected humans and apes
Thomas Huxley was among the first to draw connections between humans and apes
Ernst Haeckel proposed that there was once a single-celled ancestor, and that humans only acquired speech after evolving to be upright
Dubois was motivated by these works to leave his job as a teacher and become a paleontologist
He resolved to explore the caves of Sumatra, where remains were likely to be found, and took an army position in the Dutch Indies
With little promise in Sumatra, Dubois moved on to Java, where he and his team excavated the hills, riverbanks, and caves
He discovered the Pithecanthropus erectus, the erect ape-man that served as the intermediate between apes and humans
His work was at first heavily scrutinized, but later accepted, and it even served as the basis for more excavations in Asia
Roy Chapman Andrews began working in a Natural History Museum, which led him to opportunities to explore the land and waters of Eastern Asia
Andrews resolved to explore Asia to try and find ancient humans and fauna
Andrews pitched a new plan to attempt to recreate the past history of the Asian Plateau
While on the expedition in Iren Dabasu, they discovered many mammalian and dinosaur fossils
They discovered the remains of the Baluchitherium, the tallest land mammal to ever exist
They returned with the fossils of birds, rodents, rhinoceros, and deer, as well as small creatures from the Cretaceous Period
They continued to explore the same location a year later, where they found fossilized dinosaur eggs, mammals that lived among dinosaurs,
The mammals were the missing links in mammalian evolution, showing that mammals had already split into placental and marsupial forms during the age of dinosaurs
New species were discovered, including the Velociraptor, Tarborsaurus, and Oviraptor
Andrews’ expedition landed him great recognition, as his team’s discoveries still remain a crucial point of natural history today
Walter Alvarez, a geologist, explored the ancient town of Gubbio
When examining forams (protists), he noticed larger forams in one layer, a clay layer void of forams on top, and a layer of smaller forams on top of that
This change occured at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (K-T boundary)
His father, Luis Alvarez, a physicist, along with two chemists, discovered that the levels of Iridium in the clay layer was much higher than that of the rest of the rock face
Using physics, Luis Alvarez concluded that an asteroid weighing 300 billion tons must have hit the earth to kill all the dinosaurs and leave the layer of clay
After observing the tektites and microscopic quartz grains in the Yucatan Peninsula, it was theorized that the crater struck there, causing the K-T boundary
Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer encountered a strange, five-foot fish
When she consulted J.L.B. Smith, he identified it as a Coelacanth, fish thought to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous period
The Coelacanth was lobe-finned, meaning it had limb-like fins similar to four-legged vertebrates
These fish were the ancestors of land-dwelling creatures
More Coelacanths were found in the years following, and they were dubbed “living fossils”
Tony Allison developed the notion that genetic markers, such as blood groups, would provide an insight into human relationships
He collected blood samples from tribes all over Kenya, and found that in some regions, sickle-cell carriers exceeded 20 percent
After surveying over five thousand people in East Africa, he discovered that having one copy of the sickle-cell gene (carriers) would help protect them from malaria, but having two copies would increase the fatality of malaria
Allison’s discoveries proved natural selection, as areas with frequent malaria would have more occupants with sickle-cell genes
It was also the first time natural selection could be viewed on the genetic level
With whaling becoming more popular, Norway set out to build a post on Bouvet Island
The zoologist on board, Ditlef Rustard, caught a strange-looking “crocodile fish” with colourless blood
Later, a professor of marine biology, Johan Ruud, had his interest piqued by these fish, as they were the only vertebrae without pigmentation in their blood
Ruud discovered that these fish had low oxygen-carrying capacities
Antarctic currents had prevented fish from migrating, and created a cold environment that only adapted species could survive
It was believed that their anti-freeze gene evolved from digestive enzymes
These fish had large gills, hearts, and arteries compared to other fish, allowing them to easily absorb the oxygen from the waters
The fish lack hemoglobin to help maintain a low blood viscosity in freezing waters
The icefish evolved from warm-water, red-blooded ancestors, but still contained fossil genes
