Lecture on Amphetamines and Drug Effects

Two main types of amphetamines discussed:
- Methamphetamine (Crystal Meth)
- Known for highly addictive properties and severe effects on mood and behavior.
- Three Four Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or Molly)
- Has a methylene dioxy ring structure, indicated humorously as resembling a frog head.
- Known for inducing feelings of warmth, love, and sociability.
Differences in experiences at raves:
- MDMA effects:
- Increases serotonin levels leading to feelings of love and friendliness.
- Methamphetamine effects:
- Increases agitation; may lead to aggressive reactions when approached by strangers.
Personal anecdote of attending a rave with children and humorous consequences of a misunderstanding in a crowded space.

Minor changes in a drug's chemical structure can dramatically affect its behavioral effects.
Drugs are categorized based on their behavioral and therapeutic effects—categories include:
- Antidepressants
- Stimulants
- Antipsychotics
- Mood stabilizers
- Anxiolytics
- Sedative hypnotics (referred to as such to avoid confusion with "depressants")
- Hallucinogens
- Opiates

Some drugs may have overlapping effects across categories:
- MDMA is an amphetamine yet has hallucinogenic properties.
- Delta-9 THC (from marijuana) also shows hallucinogenic properties, especially at high doses.

Importance of using both human and animal models to study drug effects:
- Animal models provide ethical advantages including:
- Possibility to conduct certain tests not safe for humans.
- Control over genetic and environmental variables affecting drug responses.
Skinner Box as an experimental tool:
- Allows for controlled studies of operant behavior in animals, measuring responses to drug stimuli and consequences.

Operant Behavior:
- Defined as behavior that operates on the environment and is controlled by the consequences (reinforcements or punishments).
Types of reinforcement schedules affecting behavior:
- Fixed Interval: Reinforcement given after a fixed period (e.g. rewards after every preset time).
- Variable Interval: Reinforcement given unpredictably, leading to higher response rates (more pressing of a lever in experiments).
- Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses (pressing a lever a specific number of times).
- Variable Ratio: Unpredictable number of responses required for reward, leading to persistent behavior (similar to gambling).

Antidepressants are designed to alleviate clinical depression but demonstrate challenges in testing effects in non-verbal subjects like rodents.
Forced Swim Test as a measure of depression in rats:
- An observation of how long a rat struggles against drowning can indicate effectiveness of an antidepressant, with those on antidepressants struggling longer before giving up.

Used to treat conditions like psychosis (break with reality). Difficult to gauge effects in animals as they cannot verbally express their experiences.
Effects of amphetamines on animal behavior can induce a state similar to psychosis, allowing indirect study of antipsychotic efficacy.

Substances reputed to enhance cognitive function, often linked with improved focus and motivation but pose potential side effects like headaches and sleep disturbances.

Researchers aim to minimize suffering and avoid unnecessary harm to subjects, but there's recognition of the need for such models to improve human health outcomes.
Limitations of Animal Models:
- Animals cannot communicate feelings or subjective experiences directly, necessitating the combination of human and animal studies for comprehensive understanding.

Summary of various categories of drugs, their effects, and the ethical considerations involved in their study. Emphasis on the need for greater understanding of how different substances affect both behavior and mood, especially in the context of therapeutic use and the potential for dependency and side effects.