HBS Final
Let's break down your questions and address each one:
### Classifying Bones
Axial Skeleton: Includes bones along the central axis of the body. Examples: Sternum, Ribs, Cervical Vertebra.
Appendicular Skeleton: Includes bones of the limbs and girdles. Examples: Tibia, Clavicle, Humerus.
### Body Planes
1. Coronal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
2. Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.
3. Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right sections.
Which body plane:
1. Separates into left and right side? Sagittal Plane
2. Separates Superior/Inferior? Transverse Plane
### Urinary System
The picture below is called a Kidney.
Path of Urine from the Collecting Duct Out of the Body:
1. Collecting Duct
2. Renal Pelvis
3. Ureter
4. Bladder
5. Urethra
Definitions:
- Filtration: The process by which the kidneys filter blood, removing excess wastes and fluids.
- Reabsorption: The process by which the kidneys reclaim water and essential solutes from the filtrate back into the blood.
Location for Filtration: Glomerulus in the kidney.
Things that should never be filtered into the urine: Blood cells, proteins, glucose (in significant amounts).
### Body Regions
Anatomical Names:
- Head: Cephalic region
- Neck: Cervical region
- Chest: Thoracic region
- Abdomen: Abdominal region
- Arm: Brachial region
- Leg: Crural region
### Heart Anatomy
Identify the 4 Valves:
1. Tricuspid Valve
2. Pulmonary Valve
3. Mitral Valve
4. Aortic Valve
Path of a Red Blood Cell in the Heart:
1. Aorta
2. Body (systemic circulation)
3. Vena Cava
4. Right Atrium
5. Tricuspid Valve
6. Right Ventricle
7. Pulmonary Valve
8. Pulmonary Artery
9. Lungs (pulmonary circulation)
10. Pulmonary Veins
11. Left Atrium
12. Mitral Valve
13. Left Ventricle
14. Aortic Valve
15. Aorta
Identify on the Heart:
- AV Node
- Bundle of His
- Purkinje Fibers
- SA Node
Purpose of Each:
- SA Node: Pacemaker of the heart, initiates the heartbeat.
- AV Node: Delays the impulse to allow the ventricles to fill.
- Bundle of His: Transmits impulses from the AV node to the ventricles.
- Purkinje Fibers: Spread the impulse throughout the ventricles to cause contraction.
### Fracture Treatment
Intramedullary Nailing vs. Fracture Plating:
- Intramedullary Nailing: Used for long bone fractures (e.g., femur, tibia).
- Fracture Plating: Used for fractures requiring precise alignment and stabilization (e.g., complex fractures).
### Molecular Biology
Definitions:
- Restriction Enzyme: Enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences.
- PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Technique to amplify DNA sequences.
- TaqI: A type of restriction enzyme.
- Thermus aquaticus: Bacterium from which Taq polymerase is derived.
- 5'TCGA 3' & 3'AGCT 5': Recognition sequence for TaqI enzyme.
Using Restriction Enzymes:
To cut DNA with TaqI, you look for the specific sequence (5'TCGA 3') and count each occurrence to determine where the cuts will be made.
For example:
CCTCGAACTGC
GGAGCTTGACG
The TaqI enzyme will cut at:
CCTC|GAACTGC
GGAG|CTTGACG
Sure, let's break down your questions and address each part step-by-step.
Urinary System:
1. Label the Four Organs of the Urinary System:
- Kidneys
- Ureters
- Bladder
- Urethra
Artery and Vein Supply to the Kidney:
- Renal Artery
- Renal Vein
2. Label the Cross-Section of the Kidney:
- Cortex
- Medulla
- Renal Pelvis
- Nephron
3. Functions of the Urinary System:
- Removal of waste products from the blood
- Regulation of blood volume and pressure
- Regulation of electrolyte balance
- Regulation of acid-base balance
4. Macroscopic Urine Findings:
- Color
- Clarity
5. Microscopic vs. Chemical Urine Tests:
- Microscopic: Identifies cells, bacteria, crystals, and casts in urine.
- Chemical: Measures substances like glucose, protein, pH, and ketones in urine.
Station 3:
6. Examples of Microscopic Findings and Their Significance:
- Red blood cells: Indicate bleeding in the urinary tract.
- White blood cells: Suggest infection or inflammation.
- Casts: Indicate kidney disease.
7. Specific Gravity:
- Definition: A measure of urine concentration.
- Low Finding: Could indicate overhydration or renal failure.
8. Abnormal Blood Findings and UTI Symptoms:
- Elevated white blood cells: Indicate infection.
- Elevated creatinine: Suggests impaired kidney function.
- Symptoms of UTI: Frequent urination, burning sensation, cloudy urine.
9. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
- ADH decreases urine volume by increasing water reabsorption.
10. Blood and Protein in Urine:
- Can indicate glomerulonephritis or nephrotic syndrome in the absence of UTI or kidney stone.
11. Hormone Associated with Diabetes Insipidus:
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- Main Urine Finding: Large volume of dilute urine.
Lymphatic System:
Label the Major Lymphatic Organs and Their Job:
- Spleen: Filters blood, recycles old red blood cells, stores white blood cells.
- Inguinal/Cervical/Axillary Nodes: Filter lymph and trap pathogens.
- Lymphatic Vessels: Transport lymph throughout the body.
- Tonsils: Protect against pathogens entering through the mouth and throat.
- Appendix: Contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria.
- Liver: Produces lymph and processes blood-borne pathogens.
- Thymus: Site of T-cell maturation.
Station 4:
Label the Structures of the Eye and Their Functions:
- Cornea: Refracts light.
- Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
- Retina: Converts light into neural signals.
- Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information to the brain.
Structures that Refract Light:
- Cornea
- Lens
Doctors Working with Eyes:
- Ophthalmologist: Medical doctor specializing in eye and vision care, can perform surgery.
- Optometrist: Provides primary vision care, prescribes glasses and contact lenses.
- Optician: Fits and dispenses glasses and contact lenses.
Visual Disruptions:
- Cataracts: Clouding of the lens.
- Glaucoma: Increased pressure in the eye damaging the optic nerve.
- Astigmatism: Irregular curvature of the cornea or lens causing blurred vision.
Musculoskeletal System:
6. Tendon and Ligament:
- Tendon: Connects muscle to bone.
- Ligament: Connects bone to bone.
7. Sarcomere:
- The basic contractile unit of muscle fiber.
8. Types of Muscle Tissue:
- Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones, voluntary movement.
- Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, involuntary.
- Smooth Muscle: Found in walls of hollow organs, involuntary.
9. Difference between Myofiber, Fascicle, and Myofibril:
- Myofiber: Muscle cell.
- Fascicle: Bundle of myofibers.
- Myofibril: Rod-like unit within myofiber, composed of sarcomeres.
10. Proteins of the Sarcomere:
- Actin
- Myosin
- Troponin
- Tropomyosin
Let's break down each part of your questions step by step.
Sliding Filament Theory:
1. Troponin: Troponin is a regulatory protein that binds to calcium ions and causes a conformational change in tropomyosin, exposing the binding sites on actin filaments for myosin to attach.
2. Myosin: Myosin is a motor protein with heads that bind to actin filaments and pull them, causing the muscle to contract. Myosin heads use ATP to generate force.
3. Actin: Actin is a protein that forms thin filaments. It has binding sites for myosin heads, which are exposed when troponin and tropomyosin shift positions in response to calcium.
4. Calcium: Calcium ions bind to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and exposing the binding sites on actin filaments for myosin attachment.
5. ATP: ATP provides the energy needed for myosin heads to detach from actin filaments after a power stroke, allowing the cycle of muscle contraction to continue.
Key Parts of a Neuron and Their Functions:
1. Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons and convey this information to the cell body.
2. Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and is responsible for maintaining the cell and processing incoming signals.
3. Axon: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles.
4. Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters to send signals to other neurons or muscles.
5. Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon, increasing the speed of signal transmission.
6. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulses.
EKG Components:
1. P Wave: Represents atrial depolarization, leading to atrial contraction.
2. QRS Complex: Represents ventricular depolarization, leading to ventricular contraction.
3. T Wave: Represents ventricular repolarization, leading to ventricular relaxation.
Endocrine System Organs and Their Functions:
1. Pituitary Gland: Regulates other endocrine glands; considered the "Master Gland."
2. Thyroid Gland: Controls metabolism.
3. Parathyroid Glands: Regulate calcium levels in the blood.
4. Adrenal Glands: Produce hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, and other important functions.
5. Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar levels.
6. Gonads (Ovaries/Testes): Produce sex hormones.
7. Pineal Gland: Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Regulatory Glands of the Endocrine System:
1. Hypothalamus: Regulates the pituitary gland and maintains homeostasis.
2. Pituitary Gland: Controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Master Gland:
The Pituitary Gland is considered the Master Gland because it regulates other endocrine glands.
Symptoms of Hypothyroidism:
1. Fatigue
2. Weight gain
3. Cold intolerance
4. Depression
Major Regions of the Brain and Their Functions:
1. Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and planning.
2. Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain.
3. Temporal Lobe: Involved in hearing, memory, and speech.
4. Occipital Lobe: Responsible for vision.
Sensory, Motor, and Association Neurons:
1. Sensory Neurons: Carry signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
2. Motor Neurons: Transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
3. Association Neurons (Interneurons): Connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.
Types of Neurons:
1. Multipolar Neurons: Have one axon and multiple dendrites; most common type in the central nervous system.
2. Bipolar Neurons: Have one axon and one dendrite; found in sensory organs like the retina.
Parts of the Action Potential:
1. Resting Potential: The neuron is at rest, and the inside is negatively charged compared to the outside.
2. Depolarization: Sodium channels open, allowing Na+ ions to enter, making the inside more positive.
3. Repolarization: Potassium channels open, allowing K+ ions to exit, restoring the negative charge inside.
4. Hyperpolarization: The membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting potential.
5. Return to Resting Potential: The neuron returns to its resting state, ready to fire again.
Let's break down your questions one by one:
1. What ion moves and in which direction for each phase?
- During the depolarization phase of an action potential, sodium ions (Na+) move into the cell.
- During the repolarization phase, potassium ions (K+) move out of the cell.
2. What is the word for becoming more negative/ more positive?
- Becoming more negative is called "hyperpolarization."
- Becoming more positive is called "depolarization."
3. Give 4 examples of nonspecific immunity:
- Skin
- Mucous membranes
- Phagocytes (e.g., macrophages)
- Natural killer cells
4. Define and give examples of acquired immunity:
- Acquired immunity is immunity that develops after exposure to a specific pathogen. Examples include:
- Vaccination-induced immunity
- Immunity gained after recovering from an illness (e.g., chickenpox)
5. Why do you not usually get sick from the same pathogen twice?
- This is due to the adaptive immune system, which remembers the pathogen and mounts a stronger and faster response upon subsequent exposures.
6. Describe how to solve for a chemotaxis index with the given formula:
- The chemotaxis index is calculated by dividing the number of cells that move towards the chemoattractant by the number of cells that move away from it. The formula is:
- Chemotaxis Index = (Number of cells moving towards chemoattractant) / (Number of cells moving away from chemoattractant)
7. Plaque Assay - what is it used for?
- A plaque assay is used to quantify the number of virus particles in a sample by measuring the number of plaques formed on a cell layer.
8. What is the desired plaque count on the plate to use for the formula?
- The desired plaque count is typically between 30 and 300 plaques.
- What do you do if you have more than that?
- If you have more than 300 plaques, you should dilute the sample further and repeat the assay.
9. Identify the parts of the long bone below:
- Without a visual, here are the main parts:
- Diaphysis (shaft)
- Epiphysis (ends)
- Metaphysis (growth plate region)
- Medullary cavity (marrow cavity)
10. Describe and give an example of each of the 4 categories of bone (Long / flat/ short/ irregular):
- Long bones: e.g., femur
- Flat bones: e.g., sternum
- Short bones: e.g., carpals in the wrist
- Irregular bones: e.g., vertebrae
11. Label the major bones we learned:
- Without a visual, here are a few major bones:
- Skull
- Humerus
- Radius and Ulna
- Femur
- Tibia and Fibula
12. Label the 3 bones of the knee and the 4 ligaments of the knee joint below:
- Bones: Femur, Tibia, Patella
- Ligaments: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), Medial collateral ligament (MCL), Lateral collateral ligament (LCL)
13. Describe the anterior and posterior drawer tests and what ligament injury they test for:
- The anterior drawer test checks for ACL injury.
- The posterior drawer test checks for PCL injury.
14. Describe the varus and valgus stress tests and what ligament injury they test for:
- The varus stress test checks for LCL injury.
- The valgus stress test checks for MCL injury.
15. Label the key parts of the respiratory system below:
- Without a visual, key parts include:
- Trachea
- Bronchi
- Lungs
- Diaphragm
16. What are the main symptoms of asthma?
- Wheezing
- Shortness of breath
- Chest tightness
- Coughing
17. What two main regions in the respiratory tract does asthma affect?
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
18. What two body changes lead to asthma? List two triggers:
- Inflammation and narrowing of the airways.
- Triggers: Allergens (e.g., pollen), Exercise
19. Describe the process of breathing in, including which muscles help and the change that happens with pressure and volume:
- During inhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract. This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure inside the lungs, causing air to flow in.
The tool used to measure lung volume is called a spirometer.
FEV1, or Forced Expiratory Volume in one second, is a test that measures how much air a person can forcefully exhale in one second. It is commonly used to assess lung function and diagnose conditions like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
The three main reproductive hormones are estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. Estrogen levels typically increase during puberty, peak during reproductive years, and decline during menopause. Progesterone levels fluctuate during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, and decline with age. Testosterone levels increase during puberty, peak in early adulthood, and gradually decline with age.
The two main examples of bone cells are osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation, while osteoclasts are involved in bone resorption.
The four main categories of tissue are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Five examples of connective tissue include bone, cartilage, adipose tissue, blood, and tendons.
The three types of joints are:
1. Synovial joints, which are freely movable and found in locations like the shoulder (ball and socket) and knee (hinge).
2. Cartilaginous joints, which allow limited movement and are found in the spine (intervertebral discs).
3. Fibrous joints, which are immovable and found in the skull (sutures).
The matrix of connective tissue refers to the extracellular components, including fibers and ground substance, that provide structural and biochemical support to the surrounding cells.
A hinge joint allows movement in one plane, like the elbow or knee. A ball and socket joint allows movement in multiple planes, like the shoulder or hip.
Flexion is the bending of a joint that decreases the angle between two bones, while extension is the straightening of a joint that increases the angle between two bones. For example, bending your elbow is flexion, and straightening it is extension.
To identify the independent and dependent variables in a study, the independent variable is the one that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed to see the effect of the independent variable.
The tool used to measure the range of motion of a joint is called a goniometer.
To count plaques, you typically use a microscope to observe and count the clear zones on a bacterial lawn where viruses have lysed the bacteria.
For synovial joints:
- Ball and Socket: Allows multi-directional movement and rotation. Found in the shoulder and hip.
- Hinge: Allows movement in one plane (like a door hinge). Found in the elbow and knee.
- Condyloid: Allows movement but no rotation. Found in the wrist and base of the fingers.
Ball-and-socket: Allows movement in multiple directions and rotation. Found in the shoulder and hip.