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Political Philosophy: This is the area of philosophy that fixates on the study of people in societies, and the rights and obligations they have, as well as the needs of said people for justice and liberty in the societies they live in.

This theme explores questions such as the following:

• Are freedom and equality compatible?

• Can justice be an ideal as well as a process?

• Are human rights inalienable and universal?

Civil Society, The State, and Government

The distinctions between state, nation, government, and civil society:

• State vs. Nation: a state is a political entity, with a territory, while a nation is a social and cultural body. A state can have multiple nations, such as the UK, but a nation cannot have its own state, i.e Kurds.

• Government vs. State: The government is the establishment through which a state can exercise its authority. While the state is a permanent body, the government can change, such as during elections or coups.

State: A political entity with a centralized government that has the power to govern the territory and its population.

• States hold sovereignty, which is defined as having supreme power over its territory, while also being recognized by other states.

• Some other characteristics a state has are: defined geographical boundaries, a population, government, and a monopoly on the use of force within its territory.

Nation: This is defined as a group of people who share common cultural, ethnic, linguistic, social, or historical connections. A nation will have the following characteristics:

• Identity: A shared sense of belonging among the population

• Culture: Common cultural practices and traditions

• History: A shared historical background

• A desire for political autonomy

Government: The system/group of people governing an organized community, usually a state. A government has the following characteristics:

• Institutions: A government will have many branches (i.e executive, judicial, and legislative branches)

• Authority: A government has the ability to make and enforce laws

• Legitimacy: A government will gain authority from laws, a constitution, or with the consent of the governed population

Civil Society: This term refers to the collection of non-governmental organizations, and associations that represent the interest and voice of the citizens. A civil society will have the following characteristics:

• Organizations: This includes NGOs, community groups, trade unions, etc.

• Engagement: This is to encourage citizen participation in public life and governing outside of the official political system.

• Advocacy: The promotion of social values, human rights, and political accountability

Social Contract Theories of the state of nature, civil society, and forms of government

Social contract theories refer to the philosophical frameworks that observe the origin of society, and the validity of a state’s influence on an individual. The key philosophers in this concept were: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, & Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Thomas Hobbes:

• Described the state of nature as a pre-political atmosphere, where there is no common authority that rules over the population and enforces laws. In this state, individuals are motivated by self-preservation, leading them to be in constant conflict.

• The forming of a civil society occurs when individuals will unanimously agree to surrender their freedom to an authority in exchange for order and safety, and to maintain peace.

• Hobbes was an advocate for an absolute monarchy form of government, where the sovereign’s power is justified as long as it maintains order and protects the lives of its subjects.

John Locke:

• Believed that individuals are rational beings who are fit to recognize their natural rights (“life, liberty, and property”), but his state of nature lacks laws and reliable enforcement.

• The forming of a civil society occurs when, to protect their natural rights, individuals agree to create a government that gets power from the consent of the governed.

• Locke favored a representative government with a separation of powers, in order to prevent absolutism; if the government failed to protect natural rights, the citizens would have the right to revolt.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

• Rousseau viewed the state of nature as a peaceful atmosphere where individuals lived in harmony and were all free and equal. However, introducing things like private property could lead to corruption.

• To overcome the corruption and injustice created by private property, individuals would agree to form a civil society, governed by a general will (which represents the shared interests of all of the citizens).

• Rousseau believed in a direct democracy where all citizens actively participated in making laws.

Revolution and Anarchism

• Revolution: an often rapid change in political power and societal structures, and they usually happen through mass mobilization, sometimes involving violence. The key characteristics of a revolution involve: radical change, mass mobilization, and ideological motivations.

  • Notable Theories/Thinkers

    • Karl Marx: He believed that revolutions will always occur in capitalist societies due to classism between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers).

• Anarchism: A political philosophy that supports a stateless society, completely based on voluntary cooperation, mutual aid, and no hierarchical authority. The key principles of anarchism are the rejection of the state, self-managed communities, and opposition to all forms of hierarchical authority.

Authority, Sovereignty, Power, and Corruption

Authority: This term refers to the legitimate right to exercise power, often held by an individual or institution.

Sovereignty: This refers to the main/top authority within a territory, the full influence a governing body will have to govern itself without outside influence.

Power: The ability to either strongly influence or control the behavior of people; power can be both legitimate or illegitimate.

Corruption: The abuse of power for private gain, disrupting social order and leading to economic costs.

Forms of Government:

One-Party Democracy: When a single political party is in control of the government; other parties may exist but they have no real possibility of gaining authority.

• Pros: Stability in the making of laws, as well as easy decision-making with the lack of gridlock.

• Cons: Potential for abuse of power, lack of accountability.

Multiparty Democracy: A form of government where multiple political parties will compete for power through fair election processes. This form typically includes a separation of powers and checks and balances.

• Pros: Representation of diverse views, greater transparency and accountability.

• Cons: Chance of political instability and frequent changes in the governing system; decision making can take a longer time.

Oligarchy: A form of government where power is held in the hands of a small group of people, often based on wealth, family ties, or militarized control.

• Pros: Efficient decision-making, stability and continuance in government

• Cons: Lack of diverse representation, potential of corruption and social injustice

Monarchy: A form of government where an individual (the monarch) has the ruling power, usually by their hereditary right.

• Pros: Continuity in leadership

• Cons: Potential for abuse of power, limited participation in governing

Authoritarian and Totalitarian Rule: Authoritarianism is a form of government that is defined by a strong central power and limited political freedom. Totalitarianism is a more extreme form of authoritarianism where the state attempts to seek control of every aspect of public and private life, usually through intense surveillance and propaganda.

• Pros: Rapid decision-making and policy implementation

• Cons: Severe restrictions on freedom and human rights, high potential for abuse of power.

Tribalism: A form of government based on tribal affiliations and structures, and this is usually found in societies where tribes are the main social units, so governing usually occurs using traditional leaders and customs.

• Pros: Strong sense of community, decisions are often made while considering the tribe’s well being and culture.

• Cons: Can lead to conflict and separation between tribes; lack of the formal frameworks needed for modern governance.

Theocracy: A type of government where religious leaders control the state, with the laws being based on religious doctrine.

• Pros: Decisions are influenced strongly by religious principles and values, and can give a strong sense of moral ethics.

• Cons: Limited religious pluralism, risk of discrimination among those of different faith, potential for conflict between religions and sects.

Ideologies of Government:

Liberalism:

• Core Principles: This ideology emphasizes individual freedoms, rights, and equality. It also advocates for democracy, free markets, and limited government interaction in the economy.

• Key Theorists: John Locke, John Stuart Mill

• Criticisms: Can lead to severe economic inequality, emphasizing individualism might neglect a sense of community

Conservatism

• Core Principles: Emphasizes tradition, social stability, and maintaining established institutions. Advocates for gradual change, and believes in hierarchy and authority.

• Key Theorists: THomas Hobbes, Edmund Burke

• Criticisms: Can be opposed to needed social changes, potential for authoritarianism, prioritization of traditional over individual freedoms.

Marxism

• Core Principles: Analyzing society based on class struggling and conflicts between the working and ruling class, advocates for the establishment of a classless society, with no private property. This ideology also believes in the impending overthrow of capitalist societies through revolting, and emphasizes collective ownership and redistribution of wealth.

• Key Theorists: Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin

• Criticisms: Historically, Marxist societies often led to authoritarian societies. Additionally, it is difficult to prevent the rise of elite classes and maintain a classless state. The economy in a Marxist society is inefficient, and lacks productivity.

Socialism

• Core Principles: Advocacy for social ownership and democratic control of the means of production, emphasizes reducing economic inequality and providing social safety nets. This ideology supports comprehensive welfare systems, public services, progressive taxation.

• Key Theorists: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels

• Criticism: Can lead to excessive government control and bureaucracy, potential for inefficiency and lack of innovation, balancing individual freedoms with collective goals.

Civil Duties: This term shows a range of responsibilities that individuals owe to their community, society, and state. These duties include:

• Obeying the Law: Following the laws that are established by the government.

• Paying Taxes: Contributing in a financial manner to the state to fund public services.

• Jury Duty: Participating in the judicial process by serving on juries to ensure fair trials.

• Voting: Participating in the democratic process by voting in elections.

• Military Service: Defending the country if needed, through voluntary service or conscription.

• Promoting Social Justice: acting to ensure fairness, equality, and justice within society.

Ethical Foundations of Civil Duties

1. Utilitarianism: promoting actions that maximize well being, and contribute to the greatest good for the greatest population

2. Deontology: Adherence to moral duties and rules.

3. Social Contract Theory: states that individuals consent to form a society and abide by its rules in exchange for protection and benefits.

The Analogy of state as a family/clan: This analogy shows how the relationships within a family can be similar to those of a state.

• Just as parents have authority within a family, government officials will hold the authority in a state.

• Family members hold obligations to each other, just as citizens have duties to their state to obey laws, pay taxes, and contribute to the common good.

• A family is connected through emotional ties, just as the state aims to create a sense of unity and shared identity.

Justice

Distributive and Retributive Justice:

• Distributive Justice: The just allocation of resources among the population of a society; John Rawls was a key theorist in this, as he explained the principles of justice as fairness. An example of distributive justice would be guaranteeing that everyone has access to basic healthcare and education.

• Retributive Justice: This type of justice focuses on punishment for any wrongdoing, which ensures that offenders are held accountable for their actions. An example of this would be implementing sentencing laws matching the extremity of the crime committed.

Social Justice: This type of justice aims to create a society where resources are distributed fairly, and all individuals are treated equally in a society, including protecting fundamental rights, and equality of opportunities. An example of this would be to create and enforce policies that address and attempt to solve systemic inequalities in a society.

Justice and Freedom: The relationship between the two is very close, as a society that implements justice often needs the protection of individual freedoms. There are two types of freedoms: positive and negative freedoms, with negative freedom being freedom from any interference, and positive freedom being freedom to achieve potential.

Justice and Equality: This is another relationship tied very close together, as justice is often linked with the goal of equality among all individuals, whether it be equal treatment under the law, or addressing historical inequalities. An example of this would be addressing the policy of affirmative action to address previous injustices that have occurred.

Interrelationships between Justice, Freedom, and Equality: These concepts are interdependent and a just society should aim to balance these concepts, such as implementing policies that provide equal opportunities to all, while respecting individual freedoms.

Distinction between Distributive and Retributive Justice: While distributive justice concerns the fair allocation of opportunities and resources in a society, retributive justice is concerned with the punishment of crimes and ensuring offenders receive their just punishment.

Right/Will of the Strong: This concept is the idea that those with power and strength should use their will and define justice. This idea can be traced back to Plato’s “Republic”, and it often challenges the concept of universal justice.

Substantive vs. Procedural Justice: Substantive justice refers to the content of laws and policies, and the ensurance that they are fair and equitable, focusing on the fairness of the laws themselves. Procedural justice, on the other hand, refers to the processes through which legislation is implemented, focusing on the fairness of the process of law-making.

Truth, Moral Law, and Positive Law

Truth: Philosophically, this concerns truth and its relationship to justice, as the pursuit of truth is needed in some legal contexts and ethical debates.

Moral Law: This refers to the ethical values that guide human behavior, which are usually universal. They can be religious, philosophical, or just human rights. Some examples are the concept of human rights, prohibiting murder, etc.

Positive Law: This refers to laws that are enforced by governments, and they can vary between societies, and can also be altered through legal processes. Some examples of this would be criminal codes, civil laws, etc.

Gender Politics: Key Concepts

Gender vs. Sex: Gender refers to the social and psychological attributes that societies assign to individuals based on their sex, while sex refers to the biological differences between the male and female bodies.

Feminism: A movement that advocates for women’s rights and gender equality.

Intersectionality: A concept that highlights the different aspects of identity intersect and create unique experiences of oppression and privilege.

Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege.

Relations to Fairness: Fairness is a major concept in political philosophy, often intertwining with justice, rights, and societal structures. Distributive justice sees fairness as the equal distribution of resources, based on individual needs and contributions. An example of this would be social welfare programs. Procedural justice and fairness will intertwine in ensuring that decision making processes are fair and transparent, such as creating legal systems that guarantee fair trails.

Why did Hayek describe social justice as an “empty phrase without determinable content”?

Hayek believed that the term “social justice” did not have a clear and universally accepted definition. Different groups often have conflicting definitions about the meaning of social justice, and according to Hayek, the term then often turns into a phrase that can be manipulated to serve political agendas.

What role does equality play in theories of justice?

The way equality is used as a concept in achieving justice varies across different philosophies. The following summarize how equality is integrated into key theories of justice.

• John Rawls Theory of Justice: Each person has an equal right to basic liberties, and this prioritizes fundamental freedoms and equality. Social and economic inequalities are only allowed if they result in benefits for everyone.

• John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism: The Principle of Utility states that the actions are right if they promote the greatest overall happiness for the greatest population, but it does not prioritize equality.

• Libertarianism: Justice is about the fair transfer of holdings, and as long as the process is fair, the resulting distribution is unequal. Libertarianism emphasizes equality in terms of individual freedoms.

• Marxism: This form advocates for the abolition of class distinctions and establishing a classless society where things are distributed according to need.

Is Strict Equality Impossible?

• Arguments against the possibility of strict equality: There are individual differences when thinking of human diversity, and economically, to have a perfectly equal distribution of resources is virtually impossible due to the sheer complexity of measuring everyone’s needs equally.

• Arguments in favor of striving for greater equality: Many argue that equality is needed to respect human dignity and ensure the individuals are treated with equal respect. Additionally, greater equality can lead to better social stability, decreasing social unrest. Economically, redistributing wealth from the rich to the poor can increase overall happiness.

Rights

Human and Non-Human Rights

• Human Rights: The moral values defining the certain levels of human behavior and are just as protected as legal rights are in international law.

• Non Human Rights: The rights given to the entities other than human beings, including animals, ecosystems, and artificial intelligence.

Natural and Legal Rights

• Natural Rights: Those rights that individuals have automatically, just by being human. These rights are considered universal and not dependent on any laws or customs of any society/governing body.

• Legal Rights: The rights that are granted and then protected by a particular society or government; these rights are specific to the legal system. These rights are backed by the power of the state and the legal institutions it comprises of.

Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities:

• Rights: Entitlements of a moral viewpoint than an individual or group may have.

  • Types of Rights: Natural rights, Legal rights, Human rights

  • Key Theorists: John Locke (advocated for natural rights), Immanuel Kent (insisted on the worth of individuals and their rights to be treated well), John Stuart Mill (rights are justified by their use in promoting overall happiness)

Are human rights inalienable and universal?

Inalienable rights are those that cannot be taken away, regardless of the circumstances. The arguments for the inalienability of human rights are based heavily on moral and ethical bases. The arguments against it include practicality. In reality, human rights can be violated by governments, which challenges the notion of their inalienability. Additionally, the concept of inalienable rights is a Western concept that may not be applied in all cultural societies.

Do non-human animals have rights? Do non-living things have rights?

• The debate surrounding animal rights revolves around the key theories of utilitarianism, deontology, and ethics. The utilitarian approach states that the capacity to suffer should be the basis for rights, and since animals can suffer, they should be given moral consideration. The deontology approach argues that animals have intrinsic values, and deserve rights based on this.

• The debate surrounding the rights of non-living things argues for the intrinsic value of all ecosystems, and supports moral consideration for non-living elements of nature.

Legal rights, and their relationship with moral rights

• Legal Rights: By definition, these are rights that individuals will have within a specific jurisdiction, protected by a legal system. These rights are protected and enforced by the government.

• Moral Rights: These are rights that individuals have through ethical or moral values, and they are considered to be universal, regardless of legal jurisdiction and recognition.

• The relationship between moral and legal rights

  • Alignment and intersection of the two rights: in many cases, legal rights are often heavily based on moral rights. Sometimes, there are laws in certain counties that may violate universal human rights (moral rights)

  • Foundation of rights: legal rights get their legitimacy through moral rights, and moral rights can be turned into legal rights through declarations, legislations, and constitutions.

Conflict of Rights, Denial of Rights:

Conflict of Rights:

• This occurs when two or more rights come into opposition with one another; sometimes, upholding one right might lead to infringing another right.

• For example, the freedom of speech vs. the right to privacy: If a person uses their freedom of speech by sharing someone else’s private information, it’s a violation of the other person’s right to privacy.

Denial of Rights:

• This refers to situations where an individual or group is deprived of their rights in a systematic way.

• Examples of this include: Discrimination, in which the denial of rights is based off religion, race, or other defining characteristics.

Analyzing the Conflict and Denial of Rights:

• Identify which rights are involved

• Evaluate and assess the ethical principles, using ethical perspectives and theories to analyze the situation.

• Propose a solution

• Reflect on the implications of the resolutions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• This is a document compiled by multiple representatives, all with different legal and ethnic backgrounds. It is seen as a “common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations”. Every human globally is entitled to the rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration, without any distinction between race, color, sex, language, ethnicity, etc.

Key Themes: Human Rights & Ethics, Justice and Political Philosophy, Moral Relativism

Declaration of Human Duties and Responsibilities

• This was written in 1998 to strengthen the implementation of human rights, created by UNESCO and the UN High Commissioner of Human Rights. It was created to reinforce the implementation of human rights, and to ensure that human rights were upholded by all governing bodies.

Philosophers

Plato:

• Founder of the Academy in Athens

• Teacher to Aristotle

• Created a “just” society in the Republic

Aristotle:

• Ancient Greek Philosopher and Scientist

John Stuart Mill

• The Utilitarian author of On Liberty

• Freedom is based on the “harm principle”

• Defended individualism for the progression of society, but warned against the tyranny of the majority

Hobbes

• An English social contract author, wrote The Leviathon

• “The state of nature is solitary, nasty, brutish, and short.”

Locke

• 17th century English philosopher who identified the basis of a legitimate government, which is when a ruler will get authority to rule through the consent of the governed.

Rosseau

• French philosopher and writer

• His political philosophy and creation of the Social Contract Theory, were strong influences in the French Revolution, as well as the development of Liberal, Conservative, and Socialist Theory.

• “Man is born free and everywhere is in chains” (from The Social Contract)

Nozick

• A political philosopher, as well as author of Anarchy, State, and Utopia

• Defended free-market libertarianism in response to Rawl’s theory of justice

Rawls

• Political philosopher and author of Justice, Gender, and Family, which criticized the patriarchal and masculine models for political systems and understanding of rights.

Important Terms

Ideology: A system of ideas and ideals, specifically one that forms the basis of economic/political theory and policy

State: A nation/territory that is considered as an organized political community under one government.

Liberalism: A political ideology that is distinguished by the principles of individuality and freedom

Shoe-Pinching Argument: A liberal argument that argues that not all people’s rights will be violated, but the needs of those whose rights are violated should be addressed.

Common Good: A term referring to the benefits/interests of everyone

Coercion: The action of persuading someone to do something, using force or threats

Autonomy: The right/condition of self-government, specifically in a certain sphere

Conservatism: The commitment to upholding traditional values/ideas with resistance to change and innovation.

Laissez Faire: A term referring to the principle of letting things take their own course, without any interference/involvement

Power: The ability to influence or change something

Anarchism: A form of government where there is no main form of government that enforces laws; an ideological standpoint that denies the need for any state at all

Positive Freedom: A term referring to the freedom to take control of one’s own life, and be able to experience some degree of self-fulfillment, self-governance, and autonomy

Negative Freedom: A term referring to freedom from any external barriers or interference, in order to carry out any actions. It also involves the freedom to do something as well as the freedom to not do it.

Natural Rights: “life, liberty, and property.”; the rights given to a person at birth, regardless of their nation of birth, or the type of government

Consent: The ability of individuals to make decisions as free agents, in order to enter into relationships with other free agents

State of Nature: A term referring to denoting the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like, before societies existed.

Social Contract: An unwritten agreement between citizen and state, that is founded on mutual responsibility

Justice: “just” behavior or treatment, making something “right” that was previously “wrong”

Distributive Justice: Socially just allocation of goods in a society

Retributive Justice: The idea of attempting to balance an injustice by amending a situation

Veil of Ignorance: A philosophical concept by John Rawls; when you know nothing about yourself or about your position in society, a metaphorical description of the barrier against using special concerns in order to assess the principles of justice.

Difference Principle: A philosophical concept by Rawls, states that inequality is only just if it maximizes the benefits of the most-disadvantaged members of society

Deterrence: A theory that is aimed at preventing undesirable actions, referring to crimes, by instigating fear of the consequences.

Rehabilitation: This refers to the approach aimed at reforming an offender, so that they are able to return to society as a law-abiding citizen.

Authority: This refers to the legitimate power/right to make decisions and enforce orders.

Legitimacy: This is the recognizable justified right that an authority, legal body, or institution has to wield power and make decisions.

General Will: This is the political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, referring to the collective will of the citizens of a state aiming at the common good or public interest.

Democracy: A political system where power is given to the people, who exercise that power either directly, or through elected representatives.

Oligarchy: A form of government where power is concentrated solely in the hands of a small elite group of families, organizations, or individuals. This group has power over all political, economic, and social institutions.

Philosopher King: This concept originates from Plato’s “The Republic”. It refers to a ruler who has both a complex philosophical understanding and the wisdom to rule a body effectively.

Well-Ordered Soul: This term is derived from Plato’s “The Republic”. This refers to the peaceful state of a person’s inner life, where different parts of the soul function in balance and proper alignment, leading to a just life.

Egalitarian: This is a school of thought that emphasizes the equal moral worth of all individuals and advocates for equality in social, political, and economic life.

Utopia: Referring to an ideal or perfect society where all social, political, and economic conditions are optimized for the well-being and happiness of their inhabitants.

Socialism: A political ideology advocating for government control over the production and exchange of goods and services, in order to reduce economic inequalities, and ensure that resources and opportunities are distributed equally among the population.

Capitalism: A political ideology with private ownership of means of productions, along with a market-based dividing of resources.

Communism: A political ideology establishing a classless and stateless society where the means of production is owned collectively, and resources are distributed according to need. This ideology aims to abolish private property and eliminate class distinctions.

Dialectical Materialism: A philosophical theory created by Marx and Engels combining dialectics with materialism in order to explain the development of human society and history.

Dialectic: A method of reasoning and argument that involves interaction with opposing forces, in order to lead to resolution.

Bourgeoisie: The social class that owns and controls the means of production.

Proletariat: The social class in capitalist societies that does not own the means of production, and sell their labor in order to survive; the working class

Alienation: A condition where individuals feel disconnected from aspects of their lives, especially their work. This term was used by Marx to describe the effects capitalism systems have on their workers.