Unit 7 - Etruscan and Roman Art

Notes: Unit 5: Ancient Rome - Google Docs

I.The Etruscans 

Who were the Etruscans? 

The Etruscans descended from the Villanovans— a civilization that inhabited the northern and southern regions of the italian peninsula. They dominated the italian peninsula during the 6th century, where they traded with Greek city states. They were known for their bronze casting, Tuscan orders, sarcophagi, and domestic art. While little is known about their religion, they drew inspiration from Greek myths and practiced divination and sacrifices. The Etruscans seemed to be a culture that placed great emphasis on the afterlife and domestic quality of the home: their tombs were arranged to resemble a home, while many homes contained house-shaped funerary urns. Additionally, tombs were built of mud-brick walls that contained colorful images depicting the afterlife. They drew inspiration from Greek and Egyptian sources, and developed the Tuscan order — a variation of the doric order which contained a base upon its shaft. Ultimately, the Etruscan monarchy was overthrown by the Romans in 509 BCE, leading to the establishment of the Roman republic. 

• Culture: Traded with the Greeks, known for domestic value, and drawing inspiration from Greek and Egyptian sources. 

• Art: Bronze-casting, Tuscan order, House-shaped funerary urns, colorful mudbrick walls, and domestic purposes. 

II.The Roman Republic 

What was the Roman republican period? 

The Romans overthrew the Etruscan monarchy in 509 BCE, which led to the establishment of the Roman Republic. During this period, the republic was an oligarchy overseen by a senate of aristocrats. There were two social classes: Patricians (aristocrats) and Plebeians (lower class). They unified Italy, conquered the Mediterranean, and defeated carthage. Contrary to the Greeks, the Romans placed great emphasis on verism — an art style that valued realism, wrinkles, and age in order to communicate the essence of wisdom. Where the Greeks valued classical ideals of beauty, the Romans focused on precision and realism. Additionally, the roman arch — a round architecture form — though not developed by the Romans, was widely used. 

• Culture: Oligarchy ruled by aristocrats. 

• Art: Verism, Roman Arch. 

III.The Roman Empire 

What was the Roman Empirical period? 

Rule of Augustus: The Roman Republican period ended with the assassination of Julius Caesar. His nephew, Octavian Augustus was later appointed as the first emperor of Rome after defeating various rival factions. This period marked a transition from oligarchy to the early establishment of democracy. Augustus was regarded as an effective ruler who established expansion campaigns: roads, bridges, and a grid-system structural layout by implementing a sophisticated engineering method and adopting classical architectural beauty. His reign was known as the Pax Romana – a period of Roman peace and stability. During this period, artists combined Roman realism with Greek classical ideals: creating idealized depictions of their rulers and using art for political propaganda. Greek contrapposto, canonical proportions, and inspiration from myths would be incorporated in artistic expression. The Romans, for example, claimed lineage from Aeneas — contributing to Roman propaganda. 

• Culture: Abolishment of Oligarchy, Pax Romana, city-expansion, and political propaganda.

• Art: Roman Realism, Greek classical art, contrapposto, canonical proportions, political propaganda. 

The Flavians: After the Judio-Claudian dynasty ended with the suicide of Nero, civil war broke out between factions. Vespesian, however, ultimately seized control of Rome; establishing the reign of the flavians. During this period, Rome was ruled by practical military men who established confidence and nationalism. Under the Flavian rule, Roman artists returned to verism. Where the early empirical period combined realism with classical beauty, the flavian period returned to the implementation of verism. Additionally, construction of the colosseum began under Vespesian and ultimately concluded under Titus. The colosseum was used to watch sporting events, athletic performances, gladiatorial fights, animal hunts, acrobatics, and mock sea battles. Each level contained a different architectural order: starting from Truscan at the bottom, Ionic in the middle, and Corinthian at the highest levels. Titus was known for commissioning the arch of Titus, an honorary arch that celebrated the sacking of Jerusalem. 

• Culture: Cultural Roman Identity, Military expansion, public events, etc. 

• Art: Verism, Colosseum, Arch of Titus. 

III. The High Imperial Period 

What was the high imperial period? 

Shortly after the assassination of the last Flavian emperor, Domitian, Trajan was appointed as his successor. The imperial period was marked by the rule of Trajan, and his later successor, Hadrian — who established a prosperous reign and the commissioning of beautiful architectural marvels. While Trajan, despite being a military general, created a peaceful reign, Hadrian’s love for the hellenistic allowed him to lead the development of classical artistic and architectural projects, military and social reforms, and governmental appointments. The prosperity of the high imperial period, however, ended with Marcus Aurelius’ son and successor, Commodus — whose reign led to political unrest. 

• Culture: Prosperity, Roman identity, Political propaganda, Hellenism. Both rulers were fond of military technique and architectural expansion. 

• Art: Architectural projects, Roman identity, classical art, prosperity. 

Trajan’s influence over Rome: Trajan commissioned the Imperial forum, created by Apollodorus. It included the Basilica Ulpia — an administrative space used for legal functions. He also commissioned the Column of Trajan in order to emphasize his military prowess — a spiral relief which featured his Dacian campaigns. The sculpture depicted battle scenes, strategy, and imperial leadership; reflective of political propaganda.  Lastly, he was known for commissioning the Pantheon, which was a temple dedicated to Mars, Venus, and Julius Caesar, likely to have been designed by Apollodorus.

• Summary: Roman identity and architectural expansion 

Hadrian’s influence over Rome: Hadrian, a military man and hellenist, was known for his artistic contributions to Roman society and peaceful rule. He had a lavish countryside villa in Tivoli, which, much like the Greeks, was integrated with natural landscape. It consisted of multiple buildings, lakes, gardens, Greek statues, and colonnades. During this time, many Roman households contained mosaics, which were made of pebbles and tesserae.   

• Summary: Incorporating hellenism to Roman culture 

IV. The Late Empire 

What was the late empire period? After the assassination of the last Severan emperor in 235 CE, Rome fell into 50 years of anarchy, with numerous soldier emperors attempting to rule. Stability was restored by Diocletian, a military commander who introduced an autocratic system and rigid social structures. He divided the empire into two halves: East and West, with him and another general ruling each half. Additionally, he established the Tetrarchy and split the empire into four regions for better governance. Art during this time shifted from the classical to severe geometric abstractions, emphasizing power over individual likeness. Diocletian’s system, however, ultimately collapsed — leading to a power struggle between Maxentius and Constatine, who later defeated the former. Constantine was the first Roman ruler to appoint christianity as an official religion, which ultimately served as a catalyst for the fall of the Roman empire. After his death, Maxentius ruled in his stead and commissioned the Basilica Nova. Ultimately, the fall of the Roman empire was due to various factors, including: Barbarian invasions, militaristic defeats, economic decline, and christianity. In 391 CE, Theodosius I declared Christianity the official religion of Rome and banned pagan practices, alienating non-Christian citizens and suppressing old traditions that had united the empire.

• Culture: Political Instability, the decline of Classical tradition, and the rise of Christianity. 

• Art: severe, rigid abstractions as opposed to classical beauty, Basilica Nova. 

• Hellenistic Paganism: Hellenistic Paganism was interwoven within the very fabric of Roman identity.  Paganism not only influenced Roman culture, but served as a foundation for the establishment of Roman rule. Therefore, in denying pagan practice, the existence of the Roman state's identity, in many ways, was itself denied. The denial of paganism is a denial of Roman identity.